TIMBERS OF THE

7
NORTH
AMERICA
efore specifying, it is advisable to check on the commercial
availability of the timbers described in this booklet.
PRINTING HISTORY
First published 1978
ISBN 0 901348 49 X
0 Timber Research and Development Association 19/8
Typography by Trevor Tredwell. AMIMPtg
Maps prepared by Tim Wheeler, Henley-on-Thames
Prlnted by Executive Press Ltd. Burnham, Bucks
CONTENTS
Introduction
alder, red
ash, American
basswood
beech, American
birch
cherry, American
PART I HARDWOODS
1 boo hornbeam. American 16
1 magnolia
3 maple
4 oak
5 persimmon
8 plane, American
17
18
2
23
24
26
:;
30
chestnut. American 9 poplar/cottonwood
dogwood 10 tupelo
elm, American 11 walnut, American
gum, red, American 13 whitewood, Amencan
hackberry 14 minor species
hlckorylpecan 14
PART 2 SOFTWOODS
cedar 31 larch
‘cypress, southern’ 40 pine
‘Douglas frr’ 41 sequoia
fir, true 43 spruce
hemlock 49
Use guide 73 References
Preservative amenability 79 Index
Termite resistance 81
52
55
66
67
82
83
INTRODUCTION
The geographical scope of this booklet is concerned with
North America, re Canada and the United States, bounded to
the north by the Bering Sea, Beaufort Sea and Baffln Bay, to
the south by the Gulfs of Mexico and Callfornla, and extending
west to east from the Pacific to the Atlantic.
Climate and forests
The clrmates vary in different regions, owing to the size of the
continent; the northern regions are in a zone where winters
are long and severe, while Its southern extremities lie near the
tropics, but for the most part, the climate is temperate, though
the summers are hotter and the winters colder than in western
Europe. The prevailing winds of the north-west are from the
Pacrfrc Ocean; they give the west coast a mild and fairly unlform
climate. Rainfall is abundant on this and most other
coasts; inland it IS mostly in smaller quantity; over the barren
lands very little falls at any time of year.
In Florida and Texas there are regions where tropical vegetation
flourishes ; In California and the states along the Gulf of Mexico
and the Atlantic, as far as Virglnra, sub-tropical plants are
found. The trees and shrubs are immensely vaned, many native
species are largely unknown in Europe, but many European
species have been introduced. In the mountain areas the forests
are magnificent, while on the prairies there are not many trees
except willows and cottonwood growing by the streams.
The forest areas of North America are now less than half of what
they were at the time of the first English settlements 300 years
ago, but they occur in at least five fairly well-defined areas, a
rough assessment of timber types being as follows; Canada,
Alaska and Newfoundland are predominantly coniferous, with
about 90 per cent softwoods and 10 per cent temperate
hardwoods, while the USA has about 70 per cent conifers and
30 per cent temperate hardwoods.
The five principal forest areas can be summarized as follows,
1 From Newfoundland to the lower Hudson Bay, and sweeping
north-west to Alaska south of the treeless arctic tundra, are
found spruce, balsam fir and larch, with some paper birch,
aspen and poplar. In the east, from Nova Scotia to northern
New England and Minnesota, and southwards along the
summrts of the Appalachran Mountains, a transitronal region
exists between conifers and hardwoods, wrth both types rntermlngled.
The pnnclpal trees of this area Include whrte pine, red
spruce, white cedar, beech, sugar maple, eastern hemlock,
yellow birch, and locally red pine and jack pine.
2 A deciduous tree area occurs from Ontario and southern
Quebec, extending Into much of the central and eastern parts
of the USA, and attalnrng Its best development In the lower
Ohio valley and on the slopes of the southern Appalachrans.
The most Important spectes are oak, lhrckory, chestnut, black
walnut, basswood, ash and elm, whrle towards the northern
lrmlts of the area beech and maple become prominent.
3 To the south-east along the Atlantic coastal plain and
extendrng from Vlrglnla to the Gulf states and into Texas, there
occurs pitch pine on the uplands, while on lower ground are
found red gum, tupelo, live oak and magnolta; southern white
cedar and cypress occur In the swamps.
4 The Rocky Mountain forests extend from northern British
Columbta southward across the USA to Mexico. The tree
species varying consrderably according to altitude and latitude,
but pnncrpal among these are Douglas fir, white fir, western
larch, Engelmann spruce, lodgepole pine, alpine fir, western
hemlock, western red cedar and white pine.
5 The Pacific Coast regions of North America incorporate a
number of drstlnct forest areas. From Alaska south to Washlngton,
the coastal forest stnp IS dominated by Sltka spruce. In
southern British Columbra. around Puget Sound, eastern Oregon
and Washington, and as far east as the summits of the
Cascades, there IS situated one of the finest coniferous forests
extant, and which for many years has been the centre of the
North American softwood lumber industry. The density of the
stands, and the large sizes of the trees In these areas has largely
been due to the mrldness of the winters, owrng to the nearness
of the ocean and the very high preciprtatron. Douglas fir, and
assocrated western hemlock and red cedar are dominant species,
together with Srkta spruce and several firs. South of Washlngton,
from Oregon to San Francisco, the forests along the Coastal
Range were for centuries dominated by the redwoods (Sequoia
semperwrens), but the area has been exploited for many years
and much of the cleared land has been grven over to agrrculture,
although a few redwood reserves have been retarned.
East of the Cascade Range, the forests tend to merge wittr
those of the Rocky Mountains, and here are found pines, larch,
Douglas fir, alpine fir and Engelmann spruce. Thus forest also
extends southward along the Sierra Nevadas In Calrfornra. The
Erg Trees (Sequoia glgantea) are found locally along the lower
slopes of the Sierras, and at higher elevatrons are found sugar
prne, incense cedar, Douglas fir, and red and white fir.
These five areas describe In broad outlrne the forest trend of
North America; to a degree many areas wrthrn the forests so
described have either been severely explorted, or have been
cleared to satisfy Increases in population, to cater for economrc
rndustrral actrvrty and for agnculture, and to some extent
formerly lacked adequate protectron, partrcularly from fire.
While the annual growth and removal of softwood types
throughout North Amerrca would appear compatrble with
economrc timber harvestrng. at least for the next few decades,
the posrtron regardrng hardwoods IS rather different; the trends
In inventory, growth, and removal rndrcate that the gradual
growth In forest management programmes such as planting and
timber stand improvement rn recent decades has provided a
vastly Improved hardwood srtuatron. For example, the sawtimber
Inventory In the USA for 1968 was 5 per cent above that
for 1963, and 14 per cent higher than In 1953. In 1967 the net
anrnual growth of growing hardwood trees was some 67 per
cent higher than removals, while saw-timber size irees Increased
In net annual growth, some 31 per cent above removals.
The net annual growing stock growth in northern USA in 1967
was 2.3 times the amount removed, whrle the largest surplus was
In the Middle Atlantic area where growth was more than three
times that of removals.
Although these frgures indicate that hardwood productron, at
least In the USA should be improving rapidly, they conceal
some problems. Much of the increased growth IS on less
desirable species such as upland oak, beech, cottonwood and
soft maple, while preferred specres like black walnut and yellow
birch dropped by 11 per cent and 17 per cent respectively, and
select whrte and red oak Increased only by 6 per cent, and hard
maple by 10 per cent. Furthermore, much hardwood sawtimber
volumes are dispersed over wide areas, and in many cases
exist as single trees or scattered groups of trees mixed with
softwood types, and are not economically harvestable.
It would seem that over the next decade, much of the projected
Increased demand for hardwoods In North America could be
met from domestic forest resources, provided there is a greater
~ntensrfrcatlon of improved utilization of less preferred species,
but beyond the next few years there is likely to be a progressrve
narrowing of the margin between demand and supply, accentuated
by a further loss of forest land, due to expansion of
cities and cleanng for highway construction, thus placing a
greater emphasis on the increased importation of tropical
hardwoods.
Another factor limiting expansion of North Amerrcan domestic
hardwood productron has been the development of corporations
wrth rnternatlonal market structures which apparently find
economic advantage In controlling some overseas hardwood
processing capacity.
This leads to the conclusion that North America, like western
Europe and Japan, have pressed their domestic forests for
hardwood supplies, to a stage where addrtronal expansion to
meet the needs of increased demand for preferred species, partrcularly
In large sizes of quality timber, is likely to be limited in
the foreseeable future.
It is obvious that If the world’s hardwood resources are to be
suitably exploited in the fullest manner, a flow of information
between producers and sellers on the one hand, and buyers and
consumers on the other, must be maintained, not only on those
timbers well-known to the trade, but also on the lesser-known
species.
It is the aim of this booklet and its companion volumes, to
assist this flow of information by presenting in convenient
form the most Important aspects of the commercial timbers of
the world, both broad-leaved and coniferous, in order that
their accepted roles are sustained, or most important, that new
ones are acquired.
This present publication deals only with the North American
timbers of temperate origin, but as demands for tropical
timbers increase, a fuller appraisal of American and Canadian
industrial timber needs can be made by reference to other
booklets in the series.
The standard names for the timbers described in this publication
follow, as far as possible, those given in BS 881 and 589;
‘Nomenclature of commercial timbers, including sources of
supply’ ; 1974.
Durability
Durability, or resistance to decay is important when woods
are selected for certain uses where the conditions are favourable
for decay to develop. Sapwood is nearly always perishable, but
generally more permeable than heartwood, consequently it
should not be used in exposed situations without preservative
treatment. Heartwood varies in its natural resistance to decay
according to the species and the degree of decay inhibiting
substances contained in the wood.
The various grades of durability mentioned in the text are those
resulting from exposure tests carried out in the United Kingdom,
and accordrngly, are approximate values applicable to areas with
similar climate.
The tests refer to all-heartwood stakes of 50mm x 50mm section
driven In the ground as posts. The five durability grades are
defined as follows.
Perishable Less than 5 years when in contact
with the ground.
Non-durable 5-10 years when in contact
with the ground.
Moderately durable 1 O-l 5 years when in contact
with the ground.
Durable 15-25 years when in contact
with the ground.
Very durable More than 25 years when in contact
with the ground.
PART I HARDWOODS
ALDER, RED
Alms rubra Bong.
Other names
western alder, Oregon alder.
Family : Betulaceae
Distribution
Found in the Pacific coastal district of British Columbia, and
in Oregon and Washington west of the Cascade Range.
The tree
A fairly small tree, 9m to 15m high with a diameter of 0.3m.
General characteristics
The wood is pale yellow to reddish-brown in colour with a
fairly straight grain, and uniform texture. It is of medium
hardness and weight, about 529 kg/m3 when dried, and often
shows a pleasing subdued figure. It dries easily and well, is a
soft, weak wood, which works well but with a tendency for the
grain to pick up in planing. It has good nailing properties,
takes stain, paint and polish satisfactorily, and can be glued.
Uses
Typical uses for red alder include turnery, furniture, corestock,
wooden ware and plywood. Current interest in North America
IS for the use of the wood in decorative veneer form for plywood
panelling, where natural defects such as knots, burl clusters and
minor stain emphasise the growing trend to modern - contemporary
styles.
ASH, AMERICAN
The natural order Oleaceae includes a number of species of the
genus Fraxlnus or ash, whose timber is characterised by good
strength, elasticity, toughness, stiffness and hardness, allied to
relatrvely light weight. The following are the principal species
found in North America.
1
BLACK ASH
Fraxinus nigra Marsh.
Other names
brown ash.
Distribution
An eastern species; it occurs mainly from the Gulf of the St
Lawrence to Manitoba.
General characteristics
A slender, medium sized tree reaching a height of 18m to 21 m
growing In swamps and by rivers, its timber IS greyish-brown to
brown in colour, darker than that of white ash, (F. americana),
and infenor to that timber in general strength properties, and
lighter in weight, about 560 kg/m3 when dried. A certain
amount of this species is used for interior trim and fittings. It
takes a good ftnish.
GREEN ASH
Fraxinus pennsylvanica Marsh.
Other names
red ash.
Distribution
Found in fairly limited quantities from south-eastern Quebec
throughout southern Ontano to eastern Saskatchewan, and
also in the southern states of Amenca to the Mississippi River.
General characteristics
A small tree, some 12m to 15m in height, producing timber
srmilar to American white ash in appearance, but inferior to
that timber In hardness, strength and toughness. It weighs about
the same as white ash, about 670 kg/m3 when dried, and is
used for slmrlar purposes as white ash, except for striking tool
handles.
2
WHITE ASH
Fraxinus americana L.
Other names
Canadian ash (UK).
Distribution
Occurs in Canada from Nova Scotia to south-western Ontario,
and in America from New England, the Middle Atlantic and
Central States.
General characteristics
The tree reaches a height of 15m to 18m or a little more, and a
diameter of about 0.75m. The sapwood IS almost white in
colour, and the heartwood varies from lrght brown to reddishbrown,
rather similar to European ash, but a lrttle lighter in
weight, about 670 kg/m3 when dried.
Uses
The three species given are the principal ones making up
commercral American ash, but there are several minor species
whrch provide ash timber. Because of the differences In density,
rate of growth, and general strength properties, the various
species are usually segregated Into tough and soft grades, the
former being suitable for work which demands toughness and
elastlclty, while the latter type, with its mrlder nature IS more
suitable for interior joinery, cabinets and furniture.
The tough grades are used for skis, striking tool handles, boat
frames, vehicle bodies, church pews and shop fitting.
BASSWOOD
Tilia americana L. syn. T. glabra
Other names
American lime.
Family : Tiliaceae
Distribution
In Canada it IS found from the Atlantic coast westward to
southern Manitoba, and extending southwards Into the eastern
deciduous forests of the USA.
3
The tree
Although sometimes reaching a height of 30m with a diameter
of 1.2m it IS more usually about 18m to 21m tall and about
0.75m in diameter.
The timber
The wood is Irght-coloured, varyrng from creamy-white to pale
brown, with a straight grain and fine, even texture, due to
the uniform growth and lack of contrast between early-wood
and late-wood zones. It is soft, light in weight, about 416
kg/m3 when dried, and is weak and lacks toughness.
Drying
Dries without undue checking and distortion.
Strength
Similar in most strength categories to poplar, but a little more
resrstant to shock loads.
Durability
Non-durable.
Working qualities
Works extremely easily, and finishes smoothly. It takes nails
and screws well, glues satisfactorily, and can be stained and
polrshed without difficulty.
Uses
Constructional veneer, plywood, carving, louvres, drawing
boards, pattern making, piano keys, turnery, barrel heads,
bee-hrves, food containers, match splints and wood wool.
BEECH, AMERICAN
Fagus grandifolia Ehrh.
Distribution
Family : Fagaceae
It occurs in Canada from Nova Scotia to the north shore of
Georgian Bay, and is found in the USA in northern New
England and in the eastern deciduous forest.
4
The tree
Sometimes attaining a height of 24m it is more commonly
12m to 15m tall, with a diameter of 0.5m.
The timber
There IS generally llttle distinction by colour between sapwood
and heartwood, the sapwood being light brown and the heartwood,
reddish-brown, similar to European beech, but of
coarser quality. It IS also a little heavier, weighing about 740
kg/m3 when dried.
Drying
Dries fairly rapidly and fairly well, but with a tendency to warp,
surface check and end split.
Strength
A hard, heavy and strong timber, with general strength properties
similar to those of European beech.
Durability
Perishable.
Working qualities
Works fairly readily, but there is a tendency for the wood to bind
on the saw, and to burn in cross-cutting and drilling. It can be
worked to a good finish however, and It turns well. It has good
nailing qualities, and can be stained, polished and glued
satisfactorily.
Uses
Flooring, furniture, cooperage, woodware, joinery. handles and
turnery, brushes, vehicle parts and for wood distillation.
BIRCH
The Betulaceae family contains nine or more species of the
genus Be&da found in North America, but only two or three are
considered commercially important. The timber is diffuse
porous, and is hard, heavy, strong and tough. The following are
the principal species producing North American birch.
5
PAPER BIRCH
Betula papyrifera Marsh.
Other names
Amencan birch (in part) (UK) ; white birch (Canada).
Distribution
It has a very wide range from the Yukon to Hudson Bay and
Newfoundland, spreading to the eastern parts of the USA.
The tree
Although the tree may reach a height of 21 m with a diameter
of 0.5m It IS more commonly 15m to 18m tall with a diameter of
0.3m usually with a clear cylindrical bole.
The timber
The wood IS creamy-white in colour, with a fine, uniform
texture, weighing about 640 kg/m3 when dried.
Drying
Dries rather slowly, but quite well and with little degrade.
Strength
A medium-hard timber with general strength properties some
10 to 20 per cent inferior to those of yellow brrch.
Durability
Non-durable.
Working qualities
Works reasonably well with all hand and machine tools, with
only moderate dulling of cutting edges. Curly-grained material
is liable to pick up. but a good finish can be obtained with care.
The wood glues satisfactorily.
Uses
The best butts are used for plywood, otherwise the timber is
used for spools, bobbins, dowels, woodware, hoops and
crates. Western paper birch, B. papyrifera Marsh var. occidenta/
is Sarg. occurs in western Canada and the USA and is similar
in appearance, properties and uses to paper birch, although it is
a little lighter in weight, about 610 kg/m3 when dried.
6
YELLOW BIRCH
Be&la alleghaniensis Britt. syn
B. lutea Michx. (principally) and B. lenta L.
Other names
hard birch, betula wood (Canada) ; Canadian yellow birch,
Quebec birch, American birch (in part) (UK).
Note: North American specifications sometimes refer to
selected, and unselected; these refer to colour and not to
grade, and means the timber has or has not been selected for
uniformity of colour. Thus sapwood may be called white
birch (and is sometimes confused with B. papyrifera), and the
heartwood. red birch.
Distribution
It is found from the Maritime Provinces of Canada westward
to the east side of Lake Superior, and from the west end of this
lake to the Lake of the Woods, extending southwards over the
border into USA reaching Long Island, northern Delaware and
Tennessee.
The tree
It IS the largest of the North American birches, reaching a height
of 30m and a diameter of 1 m on favourable sites, but more often
it is from 18m to 24m tall with a diameter of 0.75m having a
clear bole with moderate taper.
The timber
The sapwood is light yellow in colour and the heartwood a
distinct reddish-brown, with the growth-rings marked with a
narrow line of darker colour. There is a wide range of colour
differences in unselected parcels, but yellow birch is one of
the few woods which when finished with a medium or darkcoloured
stain will not show a marked difference between
sapwood and heartwood, hence there is a saving in cost in
using unselected stock as opposed to selected white or red
birch.
The wood is straight-grained, and the texture is fine, and even.
The weight is about 710 kg/m3 when dried.
7
Drying
Dries slowly, but with little degrade.
Strength
Yellow birch is a stronger and harder wood than European
birch, being about 60 per cent harder when dry, and about 15
per cent stronger in compression along the grain and stiffer in
bending. It equals European ash in toughness and in resistance
to shock loads.
Durability
Perishable.
Working qualities
Works fairly easily with only a moderate dulling effect on
cutting edges, and finishes smoothly and without difficulty if
the stock is straight-grained and clear. Curly-grained material,
and disturbed grain in the vicinity of knots is liable to tear and
pick up during planing and moulding, and a cutting angle of
15” or less is needed. The wood turns well, and with care glues
satisfactorily. It takes stains and polish extremely well, and on
account of the light tone of birch wood, it is well adapted to
delicate colour stains. It is unexcelled as a base for white
enamel, because its uniform, dense surface, free from large
groups of pores, guarantees a permanent smooth surface.
Uses
Furniture, flooring, high-class joinery, turnery, bobbins, shuttles,
spools, cooperage, high-grade plywood.
CHERRY, AMERICAN
Prunus serotina Ehrh.
Other names
Family : Rosaceae
black cherry, cabinet cherry (USA).
Distribution
Occurs in the deciduous forest areas from Ontario to Florida and
from the Dakotas to Texas, but only in small quantities or as
scattered trees.
8
The tree
A medium-sized tree, 18m to 21 m tail, with a diameter of 0.5m
The timber
The timber is hard, with a fine, straight, close grain, the heartwood
varying In colour from reddish-brown to rich red, the
narrow sapwood being pinkish. Fine, narrow, brown-coloured
pith flecks, and small gum pockets are a common feature of the
wood, which weighs about 580 kg/m3 when dried.
It is moderately durable, works fairly easily, turns well, and
takes an excellent polish.
Uses
Because of its beautiful grain and colour it is favoured for
furniture and cabinet-making, but it is also used for patternmaklng,
tobacco pipes, musical instruments, interiors for boats
and high-class joinery.
CHESTNUT, AMERICAN
Castanea dentata Borkh. Family : Fagaceae
Distribution
At the beginning of this century, Amencan chestnut was an
important timber tree in North America, particularly in southern
New England, and much lumber was exported to Europe for
use as a substitute for oak, and in a wormy grade for solid
veneer cores, the worm holes affording a particularly good key
to the animal glues then in use. Unfortunately, at some time
prior to 1904, a bark-InhabitIng fungus had inadvertently
been imported into Amenca from Asia, and this caused a
devastating chestnut blight which caused a ring-girdling effect
tn the trees, progressively killing off many natural stands. Tests
at Madison while establishing that timber from infected trees
was not reduced in strength, failed to evolve an effective means
of controlling the blight, which persisted for many years.
Some trees showed varying degrees of resistance to the infection,
but wholesale felling took place, wrth replanting of other
species of forest trees in the cleared areas. Present day supplies
of chestnut are limrted ,and appear to be confined to a small
area of southern Ontario, and in the USA to the southern
Appalachians.
9
The tree
The tree may reach a height of 30m but more commonly It is
21 m to 24m tall with a diameter of about 0.5m.
The timber
The sapwood IS narrow. and lighter in colour than the heartwood
which is pale brown, usually characterized by w/de growthrings
which give the wood a pronounced figure. It resembles
oak in general appearance but lacks the broad rays which
produce the silver-grain in oak. It is lighter in weight than
European sweet chestnut, weighing about 480 kg/m3 when
dried.
It has moderate strength, is durable, works readily and finishes
excellently.
Uses
Furniture, office desks and equipment, coffins, tanks, posts and
sleepers. It is rich in tannin, and is liable to cause staining when
wet wood is in contact with unprotected ferreous metals.
DOGWOOD
Corms florida L. Family : Cornaceae
Other names
cornel (USA).
Distribution
Eastern USA.
The tree
A small tree producing a merchantable bole 1.2m to 2.4m in
length and 150mm or a little more in diameter.
The timber
Only the sapwood is used, and this is pinkish to pale pinkishbrown
in colour; the heartwood is a small, dark brown core.
The wood is hard and heavy, with a fine, lustrous, close grain,
which is usually straight. The wood weighs about 830 kg/m3
when dried.
10
Drying
Dries very slowly without a marked tendency to warp and split.
Uses
The wood is rather hard to work, but it turns well and finishes
smoothly. It IS used primarily for shuttles for cotton mills, as it
is very resistant to wear. Other uses include mauls, wedges,
bobbins, golf-club heads, engraver’s blocks and cogs.
ELM, AMERICAN
The Ulmaceae family is represented in North America by ftve
species of the genus Ulmus or elm. but only three of these are
commercially important. These are described below.
Ulmus americana L. produces white elm, otherwise known as
water elm, swamp elm and American elm. It occurs in all
provinces of eastern Canada and as far west as Saskatchewan,
and In the eastern and central parts of the USA. It is a large tree,
which under favourable condrtions reaches a height of 37m
and a diameter of 2m. but more generally it is 15m to 27m in
height, with a diameter of 0.5m or a little more. The timber
weighs about 580 kg/m3 when dried.
Ulmus fulva Michx. produces slippery elm, otherwise known
as soft elm, red elm, and slippery-barked elm. It has a rather
restricted distribution in North America, and is found mostly
in the St Lawrence River valley. It is a smaller tree than white
elm, reaching a height of 15m to 18m and a diameter of about
0.3m to 0.5m. It is a little heavier than white elm.
Ulmus thomasii Sarg. syn Ulmus racemosa Thomas. produces
rock elm, otherwise known as cork elm, hickory elm and corkbark
elm. This tree grows to a height of 15m to 18m and a diameter
of 0.5m. It is found in the southern parts of the provinces
of Quebec and Ontario, and extends into the USA.
General characteristics
White elm and slippery elm are similar in appearance and
properties, and in the North American trade are marketed together.
The heartwood is pale reddish-brown in colour, and
the sapwood is paler. The wood is strong and tough, and has
11
good bending properties. The grain is usually straight, but occasionally
IS interlocked, and the texture is coarse, and inclined to
be woolly. The timber is said to dry well, with medium shrinkage,
and Its strength generally IS superior to that of European
common elm, being some 50 per cent stiffer and harder, 30 per
cent stronger in compression parallel to the grain, and more
than twice as resistant to shock loads.
It works fairly easily, finishes well if sharp cutting edges
are employed, and takes stains and polish satisfactorily, nails
and screws well, and is said to glue well.
Uses
A non-durable type, white elm along with slippery elm is used
for purposes where good strength, toughness and bending
properties are essential, eg staves and hoops for slack cooperage,
coffins, church pews. furniture, agricultural implements,
cheese boxes, crates and in boat building. It IS a favoured timber
for fenders and rubbing strips in dock and harbour construction.
Rock elm differs considerably in appearance from white and
slippery elm. There is no sharp distinction between sapwood and
heartwood, the wood being light brown in colour, the grain is
straight, the texture is finer, and it is appreciably heavier,
averaging about 705 kg/m3 when dried, but varying from 640
to 800 kg/m3.
The appearance of the early-wood vessels on end grain also is
different; white elm and rock elm may have only a single row
of vessels in the pore ring. In the former species, these vessels
are easily vlslble to the unaided eye, and further, contain few
tyloses, whereas the vessels in rock elm are much smaller,
usually requiring the use of a hand lens in order to distinguish
them clearly, and containing abundant tyloses, hence the
higher density, finer texture, and straighter grain of rock elm.
The trmber is said to tend to check and twist during drying
and therefore to require care. It is also a rather difficult timber
to work by hand, and moderately difficult to machine, there
being a tendency for cutting edges to dull rather quickly, and
for the wood to burn during drilling, cross-cutting and mortising,
A good ftnlsh can be obtained with care, and the wood can be
stained, polished, nailed and screwed satisfactorily.
12
Uses
A non-durable wood, it is used in boat and ship building for
keels, gunwales, bilge stringers, in dock and harbour work for
fenders and rubbing strips, agricultural implements, chair rockers,
gymnasium equipment, vehicle bodies for bent work,
ladder rungs and for sleigh runners. The outstanding features of
rock elm are its toughness and resistance to shock loads.
GUM, RED, AMERICAN
Liquidambar styraciflua L.
Other names
Family : Hamamelidaceae
sweet gum, bilsted (USA); red gum (heartwood) sap gum
(sapwood), (USA) ; the UK names of hazel pine (sapwood)
and satin walnut (heartwood) are confusing and should be
discontinued.
Distribution
The tree ranges from New England to Mexico and Central
America, but reaches its best development in the south-eastern
States. It is a source of storax or styrax, a pathological balsam
product formed In the bark by wound stimulation.
General characteristics
The sapwood is creamy white and the heartwood varies from
pinkish-brown to deep reddish-brown. The texture is fine and
uniform, and the grain is generally irregular; the wood, which
has a satiny lustre, weighs about 560 kg/m3 when dried. Some
trees produce an attractive mottle figure. The timber dries
readily, but with a distinct tendency to warp and twist, and
unless carefully dried to a suitable moisture content, is highly
susceptible to in situ atmospheric changes, the wood tending to
shrink, swell and split. Quarter-sawn stock is less liable to
distortion in service.
Uses
The timber has a wide range of uses, either as red (sweet) gum,
or in sapwood form (sap gum). These range from furniture and
panelling, to doors, interior trim, plywood, boxes and crates.
13
HACKBERRY
Celtis occidentalis L.
Distribution
Eastern USA.
Family : Ulmaceae
General characteristics
Hackberry IS botanically associated with the elms of North
America, and IS often marketed with white and slippery elm,
although the colour of hackberry, which is greyrsh or yellowishgrey,
wtth lrttle difference in colour between sapwood and
heartwood, distinguishes It from the elms, with their brownish
heartwood, clearly defined from the lighter coloured sapwood.
The anatomical features of both hackberry and elm are similar,
each havrng a conspicuous early-wood pore-ring one, or
more vessel wide. with the late-wood vessels in undulating
tangential lines. Hackberry has an irregular grain, occasionally
straight, a fairly fine and uniform texture, is tough, strong and
moderately hard, and weighs about 640 kg/m3 when dried.
Uses
It is a non-durable wood, used for furniture, cooperage, vehicle
bodres, woodware; generally for the same purposes as
elm.
HICKORY
The Juglandaceae produces various tree species well known
for their timber and In most cases also for the valuable nuts they
produce. Among these are walnut, pecan and hickory. Originally,
hickory and pecan were classified under the genus
Hicoria, but they have now been reclassified as Carya spp. The
following are the important species of this genera found in
North America ; walnut, Juglans spp. will be found elsewhere in
this publrcatron.
Hickory is produced by,
Carya glabra Sweet. also known as pignut hickory.
C. tomentosa Nutt. also known as mockernut hickory.
C. laciniosa Loud. also known as shellbark hickory.
C. ovata K. Koch. also known as shagbark hickory.
14
Pecan is produced by,
Carya illinoensis K. Koch. also known as sweet pecan and pecan
hickory.
C. aquatica Nutt. also known as bitter pecan and water hickory.
All are sold as hickory and used for the same purposes, but the
true hickories are a little superior in strength. Both types are
often separated into whtte hickory (sapwood) and red hickory
(heartwood), but this is a distinction by colour, and not by
strength, since this is more dependent on densrty and rate of
growth.
Distribution
The four true hickories are found from Ontario to Minnesota,
Florida and Mexrco, mainly In the eastern deciduous forests.
The pecans are native to south-eastern USA and Mexrco, and are
now extensively cultivated In the southern States, particularly
in Texas and Oklahoma, principally for the nuts they produce.
The tree
The trees vary according to species, from 18m to 30m or a
little more in height, with diameters ranging from 0.5m to 1 .Om.
The timber
All the species are similar in appearance; the sapwood is white,
and usually wide, and is generally preferred, while the heartwood
is brown or reddish-brown in colour. The grain is straight,
and only occasionally wavy or irregular, and the texture is
coarse, not unltke ash in general appearance. The true hickories
weigh about 830 kg/ma and pecan weighs about 750 kg/m3
when dried.
Although for practical purposes it is usually unnecessary to
distinguish between the various species, except where high
strength is required, when high density and a growth rate of
less than 20 rings to 25mm is usually preferred, it is possible to
separate true hickory from pecan by observing the position of
the narrow bands of parenchyma in the early-wood as seen on
clean cut end-grain. These bands appear like ladder rungs
between the rays; in the true hickories the first band appears
beyond the first row of early-wood pores, while in pecan it
occurs between these large pores.
15
Drying
All types dry fairly rapidly without much tendency to warp and
twist, but shnnkage is said to be high.
Strength
Compared with ash, hickory is much tougher, stronger in
bending, stiffer, and more resistant to shock loads, and although
pecan IS slightly Inferior. both types exceed In importance all
other North American woods, where a combination of such
properties is required.
Durability
Non-durable.
Working qualities
Rather variable in working properties, the general run of hickory
working with moderate ease, but the fast-grown wood, mostly
preferred because of its higher density and strength, IS relatively
hard, and combined with its natural toughness tends to make it
rather dlfflcult to work. There is a tendency for the grain to tear
In plantng, and a reduction of cutting angle to about 20” is often
necessary to overcome this. Cutting edges are inclined to dull
fairly quickly, but the wood can be finished to a smooth surface,
and can be glued satisfactorily.
Uses
Stnklng tool handles, rims, spokes and felloes for wheels,
chairs, ladder rungs, sports goods, turnery. shafts for golf
clubs, shunting poles, vehicle bodies. It has excellent steam
bending properties.
HOP HORNBEAM, AMERICAN
Ostrya virginiana K. Koch
Other names
Family : Betulaceae
ironwood (Canada and USA); this name is confusing and
should be discontinued; by comparison with other woods of
this name, the timber of Ostrya does not merit the description.
Distribution
Canada and eastern USA.
16
General characteristics
Thus IS a minor species, of limrted avarlabllrty, but locally important
as a hard, tough and strong timber, associated in use
with the hickones.
The tree grows to a height of 18m wit/h a diameter of 0.5m. The
wood vanes from white to light brown in colour, IS usually
cross-grarned, and is heavy and hard, weighing about 800
kg/m3 when dried. It IS drfflcult to work, and IS used locally for
tool handles, vehrcle parts, agricultural implements, levers and
fence posts.
MAGNOLIA
Magnolia spp. principally
M. grandiflora L. and M. virginiana L.
Family : Magnoliaceae
Other names
cucumber (USA).
Distribution
The Atlantic coastal plain forests extend from Virginia to Texas
and contain conifers at the higher elevations, while on lower
ground magnolia occurs along with red gum and tupelo.
The tree
The tree varies In size according to species but on average it is
about 18m high with a dtameter of 0.5m or more.
General characteristics
The sapwood is creamy white and the heartwood is light
straw-coloured, wrth a greenish or sometrmes purplrsh tinge,
often with dark, almost purple streaks caused by mineral
deposits, and fine, light-coloured lines of terminal parenchyma.
The grain is straight, the texture fine and uniform, and the wood
has a satrny lustre. It IS similar in appearance to American whitewood
(Llrlodendron). and not unlike tupelo (Nyssa) and red
gum (Liquidambar), especially In anatomical charactenstrcs.
Magnolia weighs about 560 kg/m3 when dried.
It works easily and well, can be narled, screwed, glued, stained
and polished excellently.
17
Uses
It has a small movement in changing atmospheres and accordingly
IS used for louvres, interior lolnery, doors, boxes, woodwool
and for panelling, especially when streaked with variegated
mineral stain.
MAPLE
The Aceraceae family includes some ten species of the genus
Acer found tn North America, but of these, only about five
species are important sources of maple timber; these are given
below.
Acer saccharum Marsh. produces rock maple, hard rnaple or
sugar maple.
A. nlgrum Mlchx f. produces black maple, rock or hard maple.
A. saccharinurn L. produces soft maple or silver maple.
A. ruhrum L. produces soft maple or red maple.
A. macrophyllum Pursh. produces Pacific maple or Oregon
maple.
Distribution
Found generally in Canada and eastern USA; Pacific maple
berng confined to the Pacific Coast of Canada and USA.
The tree
A. saccharum and A. nlgrum grow to a height of 27m or more
and a diameter of 0.5m to 0.75m.
A. saccharinurn is of similar height but is often of slightly
larger diameter, about 1 .Om.
A. rubrum reaches a height of 15m to 23m and a diameter of
0.75m.
A. macrophylum is a smaller tree, some 12m to 24m high,
and a drameter of 0.5m.
The timber
Hard maple is strong, heavy, hard, straight-grained and fine
textured. The heartwood IS light reddish-brown with deepercoloured
late-wood bands. The sapwood is white in colour,
and furnishes the white maple prtzed for certain uses. It differs
mainly from the soft maples In its greater density and finer
texture. The werght of dried timber is as follows; A. saccharum
18
and A. nigrum (rock maple) 740 kg/m3; A. ruhrum (soft
maple) 630 kg/m3; A. saccharinurn (soft maple) 550 kg/m3;
A. macrophylum (Pacrfic maple) 560 kg/m3.
Drying
All types dry without undue dlfflculty but rather slowly,
particularly rock maple.
Strength
Compared with European beech, rock maple is about equal in
bendlng strength and in compression along the grain, and some
15 to 20 per cent superior in hardness, resistance to shock loads
and resistance to splitting. Soft maple is inferior to rock maple
In all strength categories; it is 40 to 50 per cent softer, about
the same amount less resistant to shock loading and In shear
strength, 20 per cent less stiff, and 20 to 30 per cent weaker In
bending and compression along the grain, and less resistant to
spllttlng.
Durability
All types are non-durable.
Working qualities
Hard maple IS rather difficult to work, the timber tendlng to
cause saws to vibrate, and for cutters to ride on the wood
during planing. A reductron of cutting angle to 20” assrsts the
flnlshlng operation particularly when curly grain IS present.
The timber can be stained, polished and glued satisfactorily,
but It IS hard to nail or screw, although these are held frrmly.
Soft maple works and machines with less difficulty In all
operations.
Uses
The uses for hard and soft maple are practically the same except
for most exacting requirements of hardness and strength.
Hard maple is generally preferred for flooring and for shoe lasts,
but soft maple IS also used. Typical uses for maple Include
flooring, furniture, piano actions, turnery, musical instruments,
sports goods, butcher blocks, bowling alleys, dairy and laundry
equipment ,panellrng, veneer and plywood. Frgured forms of
maple Include bird’s eye, fiddle-back, blister and curly maple.
Note : a small proportron of Acernegundo L. is sometimes mixed
19
with shipments of soft maple. This timber, known as box elder,
Manrtoba maple or ash-leaved maple is rather Inferior to the
other maples, being lighter In colour, softer, and weak. It IS used
locally for boxes, drawer-bottoms and for rough constructron.
OAK
The Fagaceae family includes some fifty species of the genus
Quercus, producing the true oaks of North America, but many
of these are so small In srze, or are found In such limited quant/
ties that they are of no commercral Importance. Some twenty
specres are Important, but since It is dlfflcult to drstlngursh
between the wood of the rndrvrdual species, it IS the practrce
to group them either as red or white oak. The following are the
pnncrpal species comprising these groups.
Red oak group; timbers characterized by the small, late-wood
pores larger and less numerous than in the white oaks. Large
pores of the early-wood mostly open and free from tyloses.
Quercus rubra Du Roi. syn 0. borealis Mrchx f. produces
northern red oak.
0. falcata Mrchx f. var. falcata produces southern red oak or
Spanrsh oak.
Q. falcata Michx f. var. pagodaefolia Ell. produces swamp red
oak or cherrybark oak.
0. shumardji Buckl. produces shumard red oak.
White oak group; timbers characterized by the small, latewood
pores fine and numerous, not easily drstlnguished
without a hand lens. Large pores of the early-wood filled with
tyloses In heartwood.
Quercus alba L. produces whtte oak.
Q. prinus L. syn. Q. montana Wrlld. produces chestnut oak.
Q. lyrata Walt. produces overcup oak.
0. michauxii Nutt. produces swamp chestnut oak.
RED OAK
Distribution
Eastern Canada and USA. In Canada it is more abundant than
white oak, and covers a wider range.
20
The tree
The trees vary according to species but average about 18m to
21 m In height with a diameter of 1 .Om.
The timber
The timber vanes in colour from pink to pale reddish-brown,
there IS usually a reddish cast to the wood although sometimes
it approaches white oak in colour. The large rays do not produce
such an attractive figure as they do in white oak, and generally
speaking, the wood IS coarser in texture. The quality of red oak
depends greatly on growth condltlons, northern red oak, wrth
its comparatively slow rate of growth, compares favourably
with northern white oak, while red oak from the southern
States is generally of faster growth, and consequently more
coarse and open in texture. Red oak weighs about 790 kg/m3
when dried.
Durability
Non-durable.
Uses
Less esteemed than white oak, it is too porous for tight cooperage,
and rts lack of durability, and tendency to warp and
check, llmlt its uses to some extent. It is used for flooring,
furniture, Intenor joinery and veneer.
WHITE OAK
Distribution
From southern Quebec and Ontario to eastern Minnesota and
Iowa. extending eastward to the Atlantic and southward
through the lower western slopes of the Allegheny and
Appalachlan Mountains.
The tree
The white oaks vary in size and form according to species and
soil conditions, some are unsuitable for timber production, but
others vary in height from 15m to 30m. well-grown specimens
having a clear cylindrical bole of up to 15m with a diameter of
about 1 .Om.
21
The timber
Although generally resemblrng European oak, American white
oak IS more variable In colour, ranging from pale yellow-brown
to pale reddish-brown, often with a pinkish tint. The multiserrate
rays are generally higher than those of the red oaks
producing a more prominent and attractive silver-grain figure
on quarter-sawn surfaces. The grain is generally straight, and
the texture vanes from coarse to medium coarse. As with the
red oaks, the quality depends greatly on the conditions of
growth; slowly-grown northern white oak usually being
lighter in weight and milder, than that from the southern
states. The Appalachlan Mountains used to provide beautiful
mild white oak greatly esteemed for furniture and cablnetmaking,
but much of this forest area has been destroyed in
recent years due to open-cast coal mining activities. Southern
white oak IS typIcally fast grown, and with its wide growthrings
is relatively coarse and more suited to constructional use.
White oak weighs about 770 kg/m3 when dried.
Drying
Like all the true oaks the timber dries slowly, with a tendency
to split, check and honeycomb.
Strength
It compares fairly closely wrth European oak in general strength,
but on the whole, its higher density provides rather higher
strength.
Durability
Durable.
Working qualities
Variable in working properties according to rate of growth,
slow-grown material being easier to work than fast-grown, but
either type can be finished smoothly if care is taken. A reduction
of cutting angle to 20” is often helpful in planing. The timber
can be glued, stained and polished, and takes nails and screws
well.
Uses
Heavy construction, flooring, furniture, pews and pulpits,
doors, counters, boats, ladder rungs, agricultural implements,
22
waggon bottoms, coffins, veneer and cooperage white oak
barrels being the only satisfactory containers for beer, wine and
alcoholic solrrts.
Note: Quercus virginiana Mill. produces the live oak of the
southern USA. This IS quite a dlstlnct, evergreen species, and
has the hardest, strongest and toughest wood of all the Amerlcatn
oaks. It IS used rn the constructlon of waggons, ships and farm
implements, but is not in much demand owlng to low avallablllty.
PERSIMMON
Diosp yros virginiana L. Family : Ebenaceae
Distribution
Central and Southern USA.
General characteristics
Although persimmon belongs to the ebony family. the tree
produces only a small, dark brown or black core, the commercial
wood being the straw-coloured sapwood, although
selected material containing dark heartwood streaks of yellowbrown,
brown, and black, is occasronally used for small,
decorative items, The wood IS tough, hard, strong, elasttc,
resistant to wear and very heavy, weighing about 850 kg/m3
when dried. It IS used chiefly for textile shuttles, shoe lasts,
golf-club heads, turnery, and other items demanding a close,
compact wood with an ability to wear smooth.
PLANE, AMERICAN
Platanus occidentalis L.
Other names
Family : Platanaceae
sycamore, buttonwood (USA).
It should be noted the British standard name for species of
Platanus is plane, whereas in the USA the timber of Platanus
occidentah is commonly called sycamore. The wood of plane
does not resemble that of sycamore, nor is it botanically
23
related, sycamore being classified as Acer pseudoplatanus, a
member of the Aceraceae family.
Distribution
Eas!ern USA.
General characteristics
The wood is a uniform light reddlsh-brown in colour, tesembllng
baect-, but wrth more of a reddish cast. Plain-sawn surfaces
are fairly plarn In appearance, with little figure excepting
for lighter-coloured narrow bands of parenchyma marking the
season’s growth. The large rays produce a frgure on quarter
sawn surfaces, showing reddlsh-brown against the lrahter
background, and giving rise to the drstinctive and h;ghly
decorative wood known as lacewood. The wooa weighs about
560 kg/m3 when dried.
It dnes easily. but with a tendency to warp and check, and
therefore requires care, It works fairly easily, but the large ray
flecks on quarter-sawn surfaces tend to flake out in planing
unless sharp cutting edges are employed. The wood can be
glued, stalned and polished quite well.
Uses
Jolnery, doors, panelling, butcher’s blocks, brush-backs and
veneer.
POPLAR
The Salicaceae family contains a number of species of the
genus Populus, which produces commerciai aspen, cottonwood
and poplar. Srnce the English equivalent of Populus is
poplar, and the timber of the various species IS similar in
appearance and properties, these are included here under the
heading of poplar, with the exception of yellow poplar,
Llrlodendron tulipifera, which belongs to the Magnoliaceae
family and is descrrbed elsewhere in thus publication. The most
important species of Populus found In North America are as
follows.
Populus tremuloides Michx. produces Canadian aspen,
otherwise known as aspen or quaking aspen. This occurs
24
fairly widely from Newfoundland and Nova Scotia to Alaska,
and from northern New England to Minnesota and southwards
along the Appalachians. The tree is normally from 15m to 18m
tall, with a diameter of about 0.3m. The weight of dned timber
IS about 450 kg/m3.
Populus trichocarpa Hook. produces black cottonwood
otherwise known as western balm or balsam cottonwood:
This occurs in western Canada and western USA. It is a large
tree, 24m to 37m in height, with a diameter of l.Om to 1.5m.
The weight of dned trmber IS about 400 kg/m3.
Populus deltoides Bartr. ex Marsh. produces eastern cottonwood,
which occurs In eastern Canada in limited quantities
and in small areas from Quebec westward through southern
Ontano, extendrng into the USA. This IS one of the largest of the
poplars, averaging 23m to 30m and a diameter from 0.6m to
1.2m. The weight of drted trmber is about 430 kg/ma.
Populus balsamifera L. syn. P. tacamahaca MIII. produces
Canadian poplar, otherwise known as tacamahac poplar, and
balsam poplar In the USA and as balm poplar, and black poplar
In Canada. This specres occurs wrdely in Canada and the USA
in approximatety the same areas as aspen. It IS generally larger
than aspen, reaching 18m to 21m in herght. and occaslonally
reaching 27m with a diameter of 0.6m or more. The weight of
the dned timber is about 470 kg/ms.
Populusgrandidentata Michx. also produces Canadian poplar,
otherwtse known as big-tooth aspen or aspen. This occurs In
eastern Canada and eastern USA. The wood is a little lighter In
wetght than that of P. balsamifera, about 450 kg/m3 when
dried.
The timber
All the above species are similar in appearance; the sapwood
IS creamy-white in colour; In some species, notably P. trichocarpa,
rather wide, and the heartwood is greyish~white to
light brown. The wood is free from appreciable odour and taste,
is Inclined to be woolly, but generally fine and even textured,
with a straight grain.
25
Drying
The various species have an inherent tendency to warp and
twist dunng drying, and accordingly require care.
Strength
The various t;mbers are tough, with good shock reststance,
but In general strength properties they are slmrlar to eastern
Canadian spruce.
Durability
Non-durable.
Working qualities
The trmber works easily. although there may be a tendency to
bind on the saw. A smooth surface can be obtained, but there IS
a tendency for the fibres to tear in sawing. and sharp, thin-edged
tools are needed to avoid woolly surfaces in planrng. The wood
can be nailed, screwed, glued, stained and finished with the
usual treatments, satisfactorily.
Uses
The uses for all the species is wide, ranging from match splints,
wood wool, boxes and crates, to brake blocks for Iron wheels,
bottoms for carts, lorries and waggons, intenors of furniture and
Interior fltments.
TUPELO
Nyssa spp.
Other names
Family : Nyssaceae
water tupelo or tupelo gum Nyssa aquatica L. and N. ogeche
Bartr. black gum or black tupelo N. sylvatica Marsh.
Distribution
Nyssa sylvatica IS found from Maine to Michigan and south to
Florida and Texas, whrle Nyssa aquatica and N. ogeche are
restricted to the swamps of the southern States.
The tree
The trees reach a height of 24m to 30m and a diameter of 1 .Om.
26
The timber
The timber of these species is similar In character and appearance,
the sapwood IS wide. and of a greyish-white colour, and
the heartwood IS pale yellow to pale brown. The grain IS
generally Interlocked or twlsted, and the texture IS fine; the
wood weighs about 560 kg/m3 when dried. The timber IS
either marketed collectively, or may be separated Into black
gum, which IS the harder material, wrth the softer wood being
sold as tupelo.
Drying
Although the wood dries readily and without undue spllttrng,
It IS prone to warping, particularly the harder, tougher, black
gum Care IS therefore required, and piles should be weighted
dcwn to reduce warping.
Uses
The timber is soft, light, tough, stiff and resistant to wear, and
IS used for flooring, wheel hubs, wooden ware, Intenor trim,
bridge and pier decking and rough construction.
WALNUT, AMERICAN
Juglans mgra L. Family : Juglandaceae
Other names
black walnut.
Distribution
Black walnut is widely distributed throughout North America,
from south Ontario southward to Texas, and In the east, from
Maine to Florida, but It IS not plentiful, firstly because Its
growth IS scattered, and secondly, because of the cleanng of
ground for cultivation and the demands for the timber have
exhausted the supply in many areas.
The tree
Under favourable conditions, the tree attains a height of 30m
and a diameter of 1.5m or more, the bole often being clear for
15m to 18m.
27
The timber
The sapwood IS usually narrow, and pale brown in colour, the
heartwood varying In colour from rich chocolate-brown to a
purplish-black. The wood has a fine even texture and a rather
coarse grain, and weighs about 660 kg/m3 when dried.
Drying
Dnes rather slowly with a tendency to honeycombing.
Durability
Moderately durable.
Working qualities
The timber IS moderately hard, tough, strong and is easily
worked. It finishes well and takes an excellent Dolish.
Uses
Furnrture, cabinets, gun stocks, musical instruments and
decorative veneer.
Jug/am cinerea L. produces butternut, sometimes called white
walnut. This occurs throughout the hardwood region of Ontano
to Georgian Bay, and from New Brunswick to Minnesota and
south to Georgia and Arkansas. The tree IS 12m to 15m In
height, with a diameter of 0.3m to 0.75m. The heartwood is a
medium to dark brown colour, but not as dark as that of black
walnut which it resembles somewhat in general appearance
and texture. It IS a rather soft and light, weak timber, which
takes stain well, and IS sometimes used as a substitute for black
walnut, but its main uses are for boxes and crates, interior tnm
for shrps and boats and wooden ware.
WHITEWOOD, AMERICAN
Liriodendron tulipifera L.
Other names
Family : Magnoliaceae
yellow poplar, tulip poplar (USA) ; tulip tree (UK and USA) ;
canary wood, canary whltewood (UK).
Note: The BSI standard name, whltewood should not be
confused with the softwood of that name, nor should the
28
American trade name, poplar be confused with the true poplars,
Populus spp. Liriodendron is associated botanlcally with
Magnolia spp., both trees carrying tulip-like flowers.
Distribution
Eastern USA and Canada. Owing to the enormous demand for
the timber in past years, supplies at the present time are Irmlted.
The tree
A large tree attaining a height of 37m or more, and a diameter
of 2m or more.
The timber
The sapwood is white, and in second-growth trees, very wide;
the heartwood is variable rn colour, ranging from olive green
to yellow or brown, and may be streaked with steel-blue. The
annual growth terminates in a white band of parenchyrna,
grvlng a subdued figure to longitudinal surfaces. The wood IS
straight-gralned, fine-textured, fairly soft and light in weight,
about 510 kg/m3 when dried.
Drying
Dnes easily and well, with little degrade.
Strength
Similar to idigbo (Terminalia ivorensis) in general strength
properties.
Durability
Non-durable.
Working qualities
Easy to work, and finishes to a fine, smooth surface. Takes
nails without tending to split, glues well, can be stained,
polrshed or painted, and holds hard enamel flnlshes excellently.
Uses
Jolnery, including doors, interior trim, light construction,
boats, toys and plywood.
29
MINOR SPECIES
Ma/us spp. (Rosaceae) ; apple wood, usually obtained from
old orchards, IS strong, hard and compact, wrth a uniform
close grain, lrght reddish-brown in colour, wetghrng about
720 kg/m” when dried.
Uses
tool handles, tobacco pipes, rulers, turnery, mallet heads
Aesculus octandra Marsh. syn. A. flava Art. (Hlppocastanaceae) ;
buckeye or sweet buckeye; srmilar to the European horse
chestnut, but the buds are not resinous. A tree of the Middle
West USA it furnrshes a soft, light wood, yellowish-white in
colour weighing about 520 kg/m3 when dried.
Uses
boxes, wood wool, artificial limbs, furniture interiors.
Catalpa speciosa Ward. (Bignonraceae) ; catalpa is a small
tree, native to the lower Ohio valley, and planted extensrvely
throughout the Mtddle West. The brown wood is crossgrarned
and durable, and is much used for fencing posts and
ratls.
Gymnocladus canadensis Lam. syn. G. dioica Koch. (Legumrnosae);
Kentucky coffee tree; a strong, durable wood
used for furniture, ~111s. bndges, posts, ties and interior finish.
llex opaca Ait. (Aqurfolraceae) : American holly: similar in
appearance to European holly, It is a characteristic tree of the
southern coastal states and the lower Mississippi and Ohio
valleys. The tough, close-grarned, whitish coloured wood is
used for inlay. brushes, wooden ware, fancy articles, and IS
often stained to imitate ebony.
Maclura pomifera Schneid. (Moraceae) ; osage orange, a
small tree, native to the Gulf States, but cultivated elsewhere.
Its wood IS a bright orange colour, darkening on exposure. hard
and tough, weighrng about 768 kg/m3 when dried. Because
of its durability It is used for wheel felloes, tree-nails, fence
posts and wood ware.
30
Sassafras officinale Nees B Eberm. syn S. variifolium Kuntze.
(Lauraceae) ; sassafras, is a small tree of the eastern USA
producrng fragrant, durable, and soft wood, used for furniture,
fencing, boxes and cooperage.
Salix nigra Marsh. (Salicaceae) ; black willow, occurs in
Canada and the USA reaching its best development on the
flood plains In the Mississippi and Ohio valleys. This is the only
one of the numerous North American willows which is of
commercial importance. The wood is whitish in colour,
typically straight-grained, with a fine even texture, soft,
tough, fairly strong, and light in weight, about 430 kg/m3 when
drred.
Uses
boxes and crates, wood wool, water wheels and for charcoal.
The young, long, pliable shoots are used for wicker baskets and
furniture.
PART II SOFTWOODS
CEDAR
The Conrferae plant order includes the Pinaceae family among
whose genera is found Cedrus, the various species of which
produce the true cedars, eg Atlantic, Lebanon and deodar
cedars, rndrgenous to North Africa, Asia Minor and the Himalayas.
A further family is the Cupressaceae, comprisrng certain
genera and species which possess a natural fragrance reminiscent
of the true cedars, and whose timbers have been given
the commercral name cedar. for example, Thuja (arbor vitae),
Chamaecyparis (false cypress) and Juniperus (junipers).
Since many of these are found in the Northern Hemisphere,
the pnncrpal genera and species occurring in North America
are dealt with individually under their commercial name of
cedar In the notes that follow.
‘INCENSE CEDAR’
Calocedrus decurrens (Torr) Florin syn.
Libocedrus decurrens Torr.
Other names
‘Calrfornian Incense cedar’ (USA).
31
Distribution
East of the Cascade Range at the higher altitudes, being most
abundant on the Sierra Nevada of Central California.
The tree
A tall, straight tree, attaining a height of 24m to 30m. occasronally
reaching 45m, with a Irregularly lobed bole, and a diameter
of about 1 m but sometimes larger.
The timber
When freshly sawn the wood varies in colour from salmon-red
to dark chocolate-brown, but tones down after drying to a
fairly uniform light brown colour. Although the wood generally
resembles western red cedar In character, its less prominent
late-wood zones, lack of lustre, and lighter colour as opposed
to the reddish-brown colour of western red cedar, serves to
drstingulsh ‘incense cedar’ from the latter wood. A common
characteristic of ‘incense cedar’ is its slight peppery odour, and a
tendency to peckiness; small, decayed areas caused by heart
rot in the tree, whrch sometimes cause severe loss In conversion.
The wood weighs about 400 kg/m3 when dried.
Drying
Dries readily, with little degrade in general, although there is a
tendency for thick sizes to retain patches of moisture, and for
honey-comb checking to develop if the drying is forced.
Strength
A soft, light, weak wood, with strength properties similar to
those of ‘western red cedar’, but slightly heavier.
Durability
Very durable.
Working qualities
Works easily with little dulling effect on cutting edges. It is
capable of a good, smooth finish. but cutters must be kept
sharpened. It can be stained, takes a fair polish and paints well.
Uses
Building purposes, shingles, laths, posts, interior trim, pencils,
piling and for the constructlon of flumes.
32
‘PORT ORFORD CEDAR’
Chamaecyparis lawsoniana Pad. syn.
Cupressus lawsoniana Murray.
Other names
Lawson’s cypress (UK)
Distribution
This tree IS restrrcted generally to the coast of southern Oregon
and California.
The tree
A large, tall tree, reaching a height of 60m and a diameter up to
3.5m above the large, swollen base.
The timber
The heartwood is pale pinkish-brown in colour, barely distinct
from the Ilghter-coloured sapwood. It is the hardest of the socalled
cedars, with a fine, even texture, is typically nonresinous,
but possesses a high, spicy scent. It weighs about
500 kg/m3 when dried.
Drying
Dries well with little degrade.
Strength
A strong, stiff trmber, with general strength properties similar
to those of Douglas fir, although a little lighter In weight.
Durability
Durable.
Working qualities
Works easily with all hand and machine tools, and generally
finishes cleanly. It takes nails and screws well, and can be
stained, pollshed and painted.
Uses
‘Port Orford cedar’ IS used for exterior cladding, boat and shipbulldIng,
canoe paddles, organ pipes, match splints, shingles,
and because of its high fragrance, for chests and closet-
33
linings, but the scent is lost after a while. and is only restored
when the wood is sawn or planed again. The timber IS also
used In rough construction products such as posts, poles and
piling.
‘SOUTHERN WHITE CEDAR’
Chamaecyparis thyoides B.S.P. syn.
Cupressus th yoides L.
Other names
‘white cedar’, ‘Atlantic white cedar’ (USA).
Distribution
Occurs with cypress in the swamps along the sandy Atlantic
coastal plain from Virginia to Texas.
General characteristics
The wood is pinkish in colour, with a fine grain and texture,
soft, weak and light in weight, weighing about 370 kg/m3
when dried. The wood is more highly scented than ‘northern
white cedar ‘Thuja occidentalis.
Uses
The timber is durable and is used for boat-building, shingles,
posts, ties and to a minor extent for building and construction.
In colontal days, it was used for timber frame houses, but was
considered too light and weak to support the weight of second
storeys.
‘NORTHERN WHITE CEDAR’
Thuja occidentalis L.
Other names
‘white cedar’ (BSI standard name) ; eastern arbor vitae (USA) ;
‘eastern white cedar’ (Canada).
Distribution
A common tree of New England, the Lake States, and adjacent
Canada, It occurs from Nova Scotia and northern New England
to Minnesota, and southwards along the summits of the
Appalachians.
34
The tree
A smaller tree than ‘southern white cedar’, it reaches a height of
15m to 18m and a diameter of about 0.75m.
General characteristics
The sapwood is narrow, and almost white in colour, and the
heartwood IS light or pale brown, with narrow, inconspicuous
late-wood bands, The wood has a faint SPICY odour, IS light in
weight, about 340 kg/m3 when dried, has a fine texture, but IS
soft, brash, and weak. Although much less sttff than ‘western
red cedar’, it IS much tougher, and has a higher resistance to
shock.
Uses
The timber is easily worked, and owing to its durability, is used
for shingles, fence posts, poles, tanks and silos.
‘VIRGINIAN PENCIL CEDAR’
Jumperus virginiana L. and
J. silicicola (Small) Bailey
Other names
‘eastern red cedar’ (USA).
Distribution
‘Pencil cedar’ has a wide distribution in North America. It is
found in Canada in southern Ontario along the St. Lawrence
and Ottawa rivers. and in the eastern USA from Maine to
Georgta, spreading westerly to a line from North Dakota to
eastern Texas, and reaching its best development in rich,
damp soils throughout the southern part of its range, with its
best growth being obtained In Tennessee.
The tree
The tree generally averages 12m to 15m in height, but may
reach 30m and a diameter of 1 m but more generally, diameters
of about 0.5m are found. The tree tends to develop a buttress,
more noticeable in old specimens.
The timber
The sapwood is narrow and creamy-white in colour, and the
35
heartwood is purplish or pinkish-red when freshly cut, assuming
a uniform reddish-brown colour after drying, occasionally with
lighter streaks. A thin dark line of late-wood marks the boundary
of each growth ring. and the wood is typically cedar-scented.
It IS soft, with a fine even grain, and it can be whrttled easily,
constituting the standard wood for lead pencils. The dned
timber weighs about 530 kg/m”.
Drying
The timber should be allowed to dry slowly in order to reduce
its natural tendency to fine surface checking and end splitting.
Strength
Although of similar weight to Douglas fir, its general strength
properties are only about half those applicable to that timber,
but ‘pencil cedar’ is harder and more resistant to splrttrng.
Durability
Durable.
Working qualities
The timber works easily, but much depends upon the quality of
the wood fed to the machines. Selected material for pencil slats
works without drffrculty, but much material is knotty, and in a
sense It IS one of the few timbers where this defect adds to its
value for use as decorative panelling. This type of material
contains disturbed grain in the vicinity of the frequent knots
and this tends to tear dunng planing, so that care IS needed to
ensure cutting edges are kept sharpened in order to obtain a
good finish. The wood can be stained and polished, but tends
to spilt in nailing.
Uses
It IS one of the best timbers for pencil making; the chips and
shavings from this manufacture are recovered and used to dlstrl
an essential 011. The fragrant. aromatic wood is also used for
cigar boxes, linen and blanket chests, ship-burldIng, coffins,
panels, veneer and interior trim.
36
‘WESTERN RED CEDAR‘
Thuja plicata D.Don.
Other names
grant arbor vitae (USA) ; ‘red cedar’ (Canada).
Distribution
A tree of the northern Rocky Mountains and Pacific Northwest;
Its full range extends from Alaska southwards to California,
and eastwards along many of the interior ranges of
Brmsh Columbia, northern Washington, Idaho and Montana,
to the western slope of the continental divide.
The tree
The largest of the so-called cedars, it grows to a height of
45m to 75m with a diameter of 1 m to 2.5m.
The timber
The sapwood IS narrow and white in colour, and the heartwood
is reddish-brown. When freshly felled, the heartwood often
displays a marked variation in colour; that from the centre of
the log may be a dark chocolate-brown changing to salmon
pink nearer the sapwood, or the wood ‘may be vanegated with
alternate dark and light zones. After drying, the wood assumes
a uniform reddish-brown tone, but after long exposure to
weather the colour IS lost, and the wood becomes silver-grey.
Thus weathered appearance IS somettmes purposely sought by
architects, but a further peculiarity of the wood is its ability
to take and hold stain of the finest tint without discolouration.
The wood IS non-resinous, straight-grained, somewhat coarsetextured
and exhibits a fairly promrnent growth-ring figure. It is
soft, rather bnttle, aromatic, especially when wet, and lrght in
weight, about 390 kg/m3 when dried.
Drying
Thin sizes dry readrly with little degrade, but the timber generally
tends to hold its moisture at the centre, and care is
needed with thick stock to avoid Internal honey-combing and
collapse, The timber holds its posmon well after drying, with
practically no tendency to warp and check, while movement
due to shrinking and swelling in changing atmospheres is
small,
37
Strength
Its light weight and soft timber contributes to low strength
propertres and compared with European redwood (finus
sylvestris) it IS some 20 to 30 per cent Inferior in bending
strength, and about 15 per cent less stiff. It IS also much less
reslstant to splitting and indentation on side grain than redwood.
Durability
Durable.
Working qualities
The timber works easily with both hand and machine tools,
but Its relatively bnttle nature, which can cause splintering
durtng some operatrons, and its soft character, which can lead
to chip-bruising. usually means that care IS needed In order to
obtain the best results during mortising, planing and moulding.
A good finish can be obtained, but cutters must be kept
sharpened.
Uses
Shingles. exterior cladding, weather boarding, greenhouses,
bee-hives, interior trim, poles, posts and fences.
Owing to its acidic properties, the timber tends to accelerate
the corrosion of metals, and to cause unsightly black staining,
ie when wet wood IS In contact with unprotected ferreous
metal, the wood becomes stained, and the metal begins to
corrode. Suitable precautions should be taken-either to use
metals which are relatively resistant to corrosion, for example,
brass, or in extreme exposure conditions, pure alumrnium-or
by means of protective coatings such as hot dip galvanrzed,
but these must be adequate, since cuts and scratches which
penetrate the protective coating, caused during the application
of metal fixtures and fittings, will impair the efficiency of
the coating.
‘YELLOW CEDAR’
Chamaecyparis nootkatensis Spach. syn
Cupressos nootkatensis Lamb.
Other names
‘Alaska yellow cedar’, nootka false cypress (USA) ; ‘Pacific
38
coast yellow cedar’ (Canadian standard name), yellow
cypress (Canada).
Distribution
A typical Pacific coast species, it ranges from Alaska to Oregon.
The tree
A medium-size tree, reaching a height of 24m and a diameter
of 0.75m with a sharply tapering bole.
The timber
A pale yellow-coloured wood, with a fine, even texture.
Unlike the related ‘Port Orford cedar’, it lacks the persrstent
fragrant scent when dry, but green timber is said to have a
strong odour reminiscent of rotten potatoes.’ Yellow cedar’
weighs about 500 kg/m3 when dried.
Drying
Dnes without undue difficulty, but there is a tendency for
surface checking to occur in thick stock with some end
splitting if the drying is forced.
Strength
A light, stiff, hard timber, with strength properties in most
categories equal to, and in some cases a little superior to, those
of European redwood (Pinus sylvesrris), but rather less resistant
to splitting.
Durability
Durable.
Working qualities
Works easily with all hand and machine tools, and finishes
excellently. It can be glued, stained, polished and painted
satisfactorily.
Uses
‘Yellow cedar’ has low movement values when used in fluctuating
atmosphenc conditions and is valued for high-class
jornery, doors, window frames, boat-building, drawing boards,
greenhouses, cabinet work, shingles, veneer for use in panelling,
posts, poles and marine piling, Since it is resistant to acids and
possesses other suitable properties, it is one of the best woods
for battery separators.
39
‘CYPRESS, SOUTHERN’
Taxodium distichom Rich.
Other names
Family : Taxodiaceae
‘Louisiana cypress’, ‘bald cypress’, ‘swamp cypress’.
Distribution
This is a characteristic tree of the swamps along the Atlantic
coast from Delaware to Texas. and in the lower Mississippi
valley. It also occurs in Florida and the Gulf States.
The tree
The tree reaches a height of 24m to 32m and a diameter of
1.5m above the knees, which are conical outgrowths from the
roots for the purposes of aeration. These are a conspicuous
feature of swamp cypress, and unlike most conifers, it sheds its
leaves.
The timber
The colour of the heartwood varies from pale yellowish-brown
to dark reddish-brown, sometimes being quite a rich red, to
almost black. The dark-coloured wood usually comes from the
coastal swamps and is sometimes called ‘black’ or ‘tidewater
cypress’, as distinct from the lighter-coloured timber growing
further inland, often called ‘yellow’ or ‘white cypress’. There is
usually a marked contrast in colour between the early-wood
and late-wood zones, which produces a rather pronounced
figure on tangential surfaces. The wood when freshly cut has
an unpleasant rancid smell, particularly the dark-coloured
wood, while dned timber has a greasy feel and a somewhat
grubby appearance. Dark-coloured resin is contained in rather
frequent parenchyma cells as seen on end-grain surfaces, the
resin being just discernible on longitudinal faces. The grain is
typically straight, the texture rather coarse and the wood
weighs about 510 kg/m3 when dried.
Drying
The timber requires care in drying, and should be regarded as
refractory, especially when drying thick sizes. There IS a
distinct tendency for the wood to split and for checks to occur
If drying is hurried. Air drying prior to kiln drying is usually
beneficial.
40
Strength
Although heavier than European redwood, it has similar
strength properties.
Durability
Durable.
Working qualities
Works easily and generally finishes cleanly. The abrupt change
from the relatively soft early-wood to the dense, hard, latewood
must be considered in relation to planing and moulding, since
they can cause grain raising problems when dull cutting edges
are used. The timber can be glued satisfactorily, and takes
nails and screws well. It can also be painted, but again, the
growth-ring differences must be considered, and it may be
necessary for several coats to be applied in order to obtain the
best results.
Uses
‘Southern cypress’ is used for joinery and panelling, and because
of Its durability is a principal timber for mining and for poles and
piling. It is also used for tight cooperage, and is a highly
favoured wood for the construction of chemical vats and tanks.
Other uses include, railway sleepers, general construction,
boats, greenhouses, fencing and shingles.
‘DOUGLAS FIR’
Pseudotsuga menztesii (Mirb) France. syn.
P. taxifolia Brit. syn. P. douglash Carr.
Other names
‘Brrtish Columbian pine’, ‘Columbian pine’ (UK) ‘Oregon pine’
(USA).
Distribution
Particularly abundant in British Columbia, Washington, and
Oregon, its range extends over a wade territory from the Rocky
Mountatns to southern Mexico.
41
The tree
Occasionally ‘Douglas fir’ reaches a height of over 90m and a
dtameter of 4.5m. but more commonly in good forest it is from
45m to 60m wrth a diameter of Im to 2m. In such forests the
bole IS clear of branches for about two-thirds or more of its
height. It has very little taper, and therefore produces a high
percentage of sawn material clear of knots and other defects.
The timber
The sapwood is generally narrow, usually less than 50mm wide,
and lighter in colour from the heartwood which vanes from a
decided yellow tinge to a reddish-brown colour. The timber
from the coastal region is generally lighter in colour, and more
uniform in texture than that grown in the mountainous areas.
There is a pronounced difference in colour between early-wood
and late-wood zones which gives the wood a very distinctive
figure on plain-sawn surfaces and rotary-cut veneer. The
average weight of dried timber is about 530 kg/m3. Although
there IS sometimes a tendency for wavy or spiral grain to be
present, the wood IS generally straight-grained.
Drying
A relatively easy timber to dry, particularly in clear grades, little
trouble occurring from checking, warping, and splitting.
Lower grades require a little more care because of the tendency
for knots to split and loosen, and in thick sizes for a small degree
of fine surface checks to develop, but the drying of such
trmber is now fairly standard practice, and degrade IS generally
verv small.
Strength
A very strong wood In relation to its weight, and by comparison
with European redwood, is about 60 per cent stiffer, 30 per cent
stronger in bending and In compression along the grain, and
about 40 per cent harder and resistant to suddenly applied
loads. The timber from the Pacific coastal districts is heavier,
harder and generally stronger than that from the mountain
areas. On the whole, the strength of ‘Douglas fir’ is comparable
to commercial pitch pine.
Durability
Moderately durable.
42
Working qualities
Works readily and fairly easily, but with a slight dulling effect
on cutting edges, which unless kept sharpened, tend to compress
the softish early-wood zones which later expand and
produce ridged surfaces. With care, a good flnlsh IS obtainable,
and the wood can be nailed, screwed, glued, stained and
polished satisfactorily. Resin canals tend to bleed with small
pin-head exudations if the wood drtes further In service.
Care should be taken to ensure that ttmber intended for a
varnished finish, especially for intenor joinery. is kiln dried to a
suitable moisture content.
Uses
Heavy construction, piling, masts and spars, dock and harbour
work, barges, railway sleepers, slack and tight cooperage,
joinery, transmission poles, flooring and flooring blocks
(edge-grain), windows and doors, mine timbers, ship-building,
vats and tanks In chemical plants, dlstllleries, and breweries,
constructional purposes in houses, roof trusses, laminated
arches, and for veneer and plywood.
FIR, TRUE
The Ptnaceae family includes two genera whose species
produce fir, te Pseudotsuga and Abies, but distinctions are
made in their botanical classification because of certain
differences In the floral formula, which is a method of compressing
information and is used by botanists to apply the
laws of classrflcatlon to trees. This takes into account differences
In flower formation, and other aspects of tree growth. Thus, the
various species of the genus Ables. collectively differ in their
botanical aspects, including the appearance of the cones,
which are held erect on the tree, from the single species of
Pseudotsuga, whose flowers are different from Abies, and
whose cones are pendant.
Accordingly, the various species of Abies are classified as true
firs, while Pseudotsuga menziesll produces ‘Douglas fir’, the
timber. and its properties and characteristics, being entirely
different, in fact, Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga), IS more closely
related to hemlock (Tsuga), the formation of the flowers and
43
pendant cones having closer similarity than the catkins and
erect cones of the true firs.
The following notes apply to the principal species of true fir
found in North America.
ALPINE FIR
Abies lasiocarpa N utt.
Other names
mountain fir, western balsam fir. white fir. Rocky mountain fir.
Distribution
In Canada it occurs in British Columbia, Alberta, and the
Yukon, associated with ‘Douglas fir’, Englemann spruce, and
lodgepole pine. It also occurs in the USA along the Sierra
Nevadas In California.
The tree
A relatively small tree, attaining a height of 18m to 21m and a
diameter of 0.5m.
The timber
A whitish wood, resembling spruce in appearance, but coarser
in texture, and lacking the lustre found in spruce. As with all
the true firs, the early-wood is nearly white in colour, and the
late-wood darker, sometimes light to dark brown, the growth
rings showing rather inconspicuously on longitudinal surfaces.
The late-wood bands are generally scanty, and the wood is
therefore soft, and light in weight, being about 370 kg/ma
when dried.
Drying
Dries readily with little degrade.
Strength
A light-weight, soft, weak wood, with low strength properties.
Durability
Non-durable.
44
Working qualities
Works easily with all hand and machine tools, but due to the
usually wide bands of soft early-wood, there is a definite
tendency for these to tear in sawing, drilling and mortising
operations, and to become compressed during planing, later
lifting to give a ridged surface. A smooth fimsh depends upon
cutting edges being kept sharpened. The wood takes nails well
and can be stained and painted.
Uses
Boxes and crates, light construction and carpentry.
AMABILIS FIR
Abies amabilis Forbes.
Other names
Pacific silver fir, white fir (USA) amabilis fir (Canadian standard
name).
Distribution
From Alaska down to British Columbia, generally on the western
slope of the coast range, and on Vancouver Island, extending
southwards to the northern part of California.
The tree
Grows to a height of 50m and a diameter of Im but in the
forest it is more commonly 24m to 30m tall with a diameter of
0.5m or a little more.
The timber
Similar to spruce in appearance, but rather darker in colour with
fairly prominent brown late-wood bands. The wood weighs
about 420 kg/ma when dried.
Drying
Dries well, without excessive degrade.
Strength
The strength properties are similar to those of European silver fir,
(Abies alba).
45
Durability
Non-durable.
Working qualities
Works readily, but sharp tools are needed in order to overcome
the tendency for grain tearing. Takes nails well, and can be
stained, polished, varnished and painted.
Uses
Pulp and paper, boxes and crates, general carpentry, house
building, light construction. This timber is sometimes mixed in
shipments of western hemlock as western balsam.
BALSAM FIR
Abies balsamea Mill.
Other names
balsam (USA).
Distribution
In Canada it is widely distributed from the Atlantic seaboard
through the eastern provinces and the northern part of the
Prairie Provinces to Great Slave Lake and northwards almost to
Alaska. It extends southwards into the USA to Minnesota and
into the northern part of New York State.
The tree
Balsam fir is not a large tree. It reaches a height of 15m to 21 m
with a diameter of about 0.5m.
The timber
The timber is very similar to spruce in colour and general
appearance, but IS coarser and less lustrous. There is practically
no difference by colour between sapwood and heartwood, but
the ends of logs usually show a wide sapwood band and a
darker core, although this is not really noticeable once the log is
converted. The wood is fairly light in weight, softer than spruce,
and weighs about 400 kg/m3 when dried.
Drying
Dries without excessive degrade.
46
Strength
Weaker in strength than Canadian spruce, and appreciably
weaker In resistance to shear.
Durability
Non-durable.
Working qualities
As with the general run of the true firs, the timber works easily,
but knots are liable to become loosened and become troublesome
dunng planing, and there IS a distinct tendency for the
grain to tear. A good flnlsh IS possible if cutting edges are kept
sharpened. It nails well, and can be stalned, pollshed, varnished
and painted.
Uses
Carpentry. interior jolnery. building, pulp, pit props. Since the
tree grows in association with white, red, and black spruce, it is
often mlxed and sold as spruce lumber.
GRAND FIR
Abies grandis Lindl.
Other names
lowland fir, (Canada) ; white fir, western balsam ftr (USA).
Distribution
In Bntish Columbia it is found only in the southern coastal
district and in limited quantities in the interior wet belt of the
province, generally associated with ‘Douglas fir’, ‘western red
cedar’, and western hemlock. In the USA It extends along the
coastal belt Into California and in the mountain area of Washington
and Idaho to northern Montana.
The tree
Grows to a height of 30m to 37m and a diameter of 0.75m.
The timber
There IS no distinct heartwood, the wood being almost white
to light brown in colour, closely resembling spruce, but less
lustrous, and generally more coarse in texture. The grain is
47
typically straight, the wood is non-resinous and non-tainting
and weighs about 450 kg/m3 when dried.
Drying
Dnes without undue difficulty.
Strength
The strength properties of grand fir are similar to those of silver
fir (Abies &a) except in bending strength and resistance to
splitting, where it is about 15 per cent weaker than silver fir.
It is also some 25 per cent inferior in hardness and shear
strength.
Durability
Non-durable,
Working qualities
The timber works easily and generally finishes cleanly, but sharp
cutting edges are needed to avoid the tendency for the grain to
tear. Because of the size of the trees, knots are less troublesome
than in alpine, amabilis, and balsam firs. Grand fir can be
stained, painted, polished and varnished, takes nails well and
glues satisfactorily.
Uses
Crates and boxes, general carpentry, interior construction and
pulp. The timber is sometimes mixed with western hemlock as
western balsam.
NOBLE FIR
Abies procera Rehder. syn. A. nobilis Lindl.
Other names
None.
Distribution
Found in northern Washington and extending south into California.
It is most abundant in the Cascade Mountains.
48
The tree
A large tree, attaining a height of 45m to 60m or more and a
diameter of 2m.
The timber
Simrlar to western hemlock in appearance. but coarser-textured,
and a little lighter in weight. The wood is buff-coloured with
darker late-wood bands. It weighs about 420 kg/m3 when
dried.
Drying
Dries easily and with little degrade.
Strength
Similar to silver fir (Abies a/&) in all strength categories.
Durability
Non-durable.
Working qualities
Works easily, and because of its generally straight grain and
clearer timber (due to its large size), more easy and straightforward
to work than other true firs. It can be glued, nailed,
statned and polished, or painted satisfactorily.
Uses
Intenor joinery, boxes and packing cases, and plywood from
selected logs.
HEMLOCK
Two species of the genus Tsuga as represented in the Pinaceae
are recognised as timber trees in North America.
EASTERN H-EMLOCK
Tsuga canadensis Carr.
Other names
white hemlock, ‘hemlock spruce’ (USA). The name ‘hemlock
spruce’ IS confusing and should be discontinued.
49
Distribution
Found from Nova Scotia westerly to Lake Superior, and extending
from southern Quebec and Ontario to eastern Minnesota
and south to Georgia and Alabama.
The tree
It reaches a height of 15m to 21 m and a diameter of about 0.5m.
The timber
The wood IS pale brown in colour with a reddish-brown tinge,
the growth rings being prominent and reminiscent of ‘Douglas
fir’. It is inclined to be splintery and cross-grarned, and IS
generally inferior to western hemlock. The texture is coarse, and
the wood weighs about 470 kg/m3 when dried.
Drying
Rather difficult to dry as the timber warps and twists badly.
Strength
It is about 20 to 30 per cent inferior to western hemlock In all
strength categories excepting shear where it is some 30 per
cent more resIstant.
Durability
Non-durable.
Working qualities
Works relatively easily with both hand and machine tools, but
its cross-gralned tendency and splintery nature makes machine
operations less satisfactory than with western hemlock. Since
the wood IS more often used in a sawn state or a hit and miss
flnrsh off the planing machlne, difficulty in obtaining a good
finish IS not usually important. Nailing properties are not so good
as those of western hemlock.
Uses
Bridge planks, concrete forms, boxes and crates, structural
timbers, rough carpentry and pulp.
50
WESTERN HEMLOCK
Tsuga heteroph y/la Sarge.
Other names
Pacific hemlock, British Columbia hemlock (USA).
Distribution
This species ranges from Alaska southward along the whole
British Columbra coast, and IS also found in the intenor of
Bntlsh Columbra rn certain areas of heavy rainfall. It extends
Into northern Washrngton, Idaho, and to the western slopes of
the Cascades.
The tree
A much larger tree than eastern hemlock, It reaches a height
of 60m and a diameter of 2m or more, with a straight bole that
IS often clear of branches for about three-quarters of Its length.
The timber
Neither the tree nor the timber bears close slmllanty to eastern
hemlock. The timber of western hemlock IS pale brown In
colour and somewhat lustrous, with a straight grain and fairly
even texture, non-resinous and non-tainting when dried, It
has a faint sour odour when freshly sawn. The darker-coloured
late-wood bands have a reddlsh or purple cast and produce a
well-marked growth-ring figure on plain-sawn surfaces, wrth an
occasronal short, purplish-coloured line here and there on the
wood. The growth-rings are less prominent than those of
‘Douglas fir’. The timber weighs about 500 kg/m” when dried.
Drying
The Initially high moisture content of this species requires care
In dryrng processes in order to avoid surface checkrng. and to
ensure uniform drying throughout the thickness. Warping and
twisting tendencies are usually low.
Strength
The timber is not as hard as ‘Douglas fir.’ but compared with
that species, it IS about 30 per cent less stiff and 50 per cent less
tough, and in respect of general strength properties rt is
more closely comparable to European
s ylvesrris) .
redwood (P~nus
51
Durability
Non-durable.
Working qualities
The timber works readily with all hand and machine tools with
little dulling effect on cutting edges. A good finish is obtained in
planing and mouldrng, but cutters must be kept sharpened.
It can be glued, stained, painted and varnrshed. and takes a
good polish. It can be screwed and nailed, but although it is
less inclined to split in narllng than ‘Douglas fir’, it should be
pre-bored if nailing takes place close to the ends of dry boards.
Uses
Western hemlock is one of the most valuable of North American
timbers. It IS used for general constructlon, jolnery, including
doors, interior finish, floors, frtments, suspended ceilings,
and for broom handles, vehicle bodies, railway sleepers
(treated), pulp and plywood. It can be obtained in large baulk
or flitch sizes.
LARCH
The larches are deciduous trees of the Pinaceae family producing
timbers characterized by their resinous wood with
conspicuous late-wood darker and harder than the early-wood,
with a more or less abrupt transition from one to the other. The
followrng are the two most important North American species.
TAMARACK LARCH
Larix laricina K. Koch.
Other names
tamarack (Canada and USA) ; eastern larch (USA).
Distribution
The tree is found from Labrador and the Maritime Provinces to
the Rocky Mountains and north to the mouth of the Mackenzie
River. It extends south to West Virginia, and westwards through
north lndlana and Illinois to the eastern foot-hills of the Rocky
Mountains.
52
The tree
Tamarack attains a height of 18m to 21m and a diameter of
about 0.5m with a straight and cylindrical bole with little taper.
The timber
The sapwood is narrow and yellowish in colour, and the heartwood
is yellowish-brown to reddish-brown, rather coarse in
texture, with fairly wide, but irregular growth-rings, characterized
by alternate bands of softrsh early-wood and darkercoloured,
hard late-wood. The wood is resinous and weighs
about 580 kg/m3 when dried.
Drying
It is said to dry well with little degrade.
Strength
Softer, and a little lighter in weight than western larch, it is a
relatively weak timber, and compared with European larch
(Larix &c&a) is some 20 per cent inferior in general strength
properties.
Durability
Moderately durable.
Working qualities
Fairly easy to work and similar to European larch in this respect.
It has a tendency to split In nailing, and is not always a good
wood for painting, but this depends upon the amount of resin
present.
Uses
One of the less important species of North America but valued
for special purposes such as sleepers, tanks and silos, boxes and
crates. posts and poles and planking.
WESTERN LARCH
Larix occidentalis Nutt.
Other names
western tamarack.
Distribution
In Canada western larch is confined to the south-eastern part
53
of Bntlsh Columbia. It IS seldom found in pure stands, but is
usually mixed with ‘Douglas frr’, western hemlock and lodgepole
pine. It extends south into northern Oregon, and attains
rts largest size in northern Montana and northern Idaho.
The tree
A tree with a long, clean, cylindrical bole, reaching a height of
30m to 54m and a diameter of 1 m or more.
The timber
The timber resembles ‘Douglas fir’ more closely than any other
North American softwood. The sapwood IS narrow, yellowishbrown
In colour, and sharply defined from the deep reddlshbrown
heartwood. There IS conslderable contrast in colour
between the early-wood and late-wood, which gives a pronounced
figure when the timber is plain-sawn or rotary-cut.
It weighs about 610 kg/m3 when dried.
Drying
Dnes fairly well, but with some tendency to warp and surface
check.
Strength
Similar to European larch in general strength properties, but
some 20 to 30 per cent stronger in compresslon along the
grain, and stiffer In bending.
Durability
Moderately durable
Working qualities
Works fairly readrly with only a small blunting effect on cutting
edges. It IS srmllar to European larch In respect of knots,
which are hard, and tend to fall out during machining and
damage cutting edges. The wood can be glued satisfactorily,
but it tends to split In nailing, and there is sometimes difftculty
in staining or painting the more resinous material.
Uses
Heavy construction, sleepers, flooring, ceilings, tanks, posts,
piling, interior and exterior finish and plywood.
54
PINE
The genus Pinus produces the true pines, the timber of the
various species belonging either to the soft-pine or the hardpine
class. These classifications can be summarized as follows,
Soft pines have inconspicuous late-wood, and have a straightgralned,
soft wood that is comparatively free from resin and is
easy to work and carve across the grain. Used for joinery,
furniture, patterns, toys, packing cases and light constructlon.
Hard pines have conspicuous late-wood which is darker in
colour and harder than the early-wood, and have resinous,
often hard, heavy, strong, and durable wood, more regularly
used for buildings, bridges, ships and other types of heavy
construction.
The following are the principal pines found in North America.
JACK PINE
Pinus banksiana Lamb.
Other names
princess pine (Canada).
Distribution
It occurs in the USA in Indiana and in parts of Michigan, but is
more prevalent in Canada where it ranges from Nova Scotia to
the Rocky Mountains and northern Alberta.
The tree
A medium-sized tree, it reaches a height of about 24m on good
sites, but is more usually about 15m tall with a diameter of 0.3m.
The timber
A timber of the hard-pine class, with a sapwood yellowish in
colour and about 38mm wide, and a heartwood varying in
colour from pale brown to reddish-brown. It is not unlike
European redwood (P. sylvestris) in appearance, but is more
resinous, brittle, and coarser in texture, and is inclined to be
knotty. The wood weighs about 500 kg/m3 when dried.
Drying
Generally dries without difficulty, but material from trees grown
55
in open forest is inclined to warp owing to the higher incidence
of knots and disturbed grain.
Strength
Similar to that of European redwood.
Durability
Non-durable.
Working qualities
Works reasonably well and a good finish can be obtained
provided cutters are kept sharpened. As the tree is small, it
produces little clear timber and accordingly, the generally
knotty quality of the wood Influences the quality of the finish.
It can be screwed and nailed satisfactorily, and takes stains,
polrsh and paint quite well, although the resinous nature of the
wood may make this difficult at times.
Uses
General construction, railway sleepers and telephone poles
(treated), silos, pit props, piling (treated) and for pulp.
LODGEPOLE PINE
Pinus contorta Dougl. var. latifolia S. Watson syn.
P. contorta Dougl. var. murrayana Engelm.
Other names
contorta pine (UK).
Distribution
Extends from the Yukon territory over most of British Columbia,
and in Alberta on the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains,
and over the northern part of Alberta west of the Lesser Slave
Lake. It also extends from the Rocky Mountains into Montana
and Colorado.
The tree
In the eastern parts of its range, the tree is slender and reaches a
height of 15m to 30m and a diameter of 0.5m. but on less
favourable sites, mainly in western areas, the tree is much
smaller.
56
The timber
A pale yellowrsh-coloured timber, soft, straight-grained, with a
fine, fairly even texture, weighing about 470 kg/m3 when dried.
Although on account of its size it does not produce much highgrade
timber, it yields a good grade of wood with small, tight
knots.
Drying
Dnes rapidly and well, with only slight distortion.
Strength
Similar to European redwood.
Durability
Non-durable.
Working qualities
Works easily and finishes cleanly, but resin exudation may be
troublesome. It has good nailing properties, can be glued and
grves reasonable results with the usual frnrshing materials..
Uses
Railway sleepers, telephone poles and piling (treated),
minrng trmbers, boxes and crates, light and medium constructron.
PITCH PINE, AMERICAN
Pmus palustris Mill. and P. ehiottii Engelm.
Other names
Gulf Coast patch pine, long leaf pitch pine (UK) ; southern
yellow pine, southern pine, long leaf yellow pine, longleaf
(USA).
Note : the term southern yellow pine or southern prne covers the
timber of several allied species of which the most Important are
P. palustr~s Mill. (long leaf pine), P. elliottii Engelm. (slash
pine), P. echlnata MIII. (short leaf pine), and P. taeda L.
(loblolly prne). The term long leaf yellow prne or long leaf
IS now restrrcted to the heavier. stronger material of P. pa/u&s
and P. elliotti; as defined in paragraph 7 of the Rules of the
57
Southern Pine Inspection Bureau, USA 1963 Edition. Material
that does not come up to this specification (formerly classrfred
as short leaf) IS now classrfled as southern pine. Thus the trade
name short leaf is now obsolete.
Distribution
P. pa!ustris ranges from south-east Vrrginra to Florida and Texas
occurring along the coasts of the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico
In a forest belt some 200 kilometres deep. P. elliottii occurs in
the same area but IS more restricted, ranging from South
Carolrna to Florida and along the Gulf to eastern Louisiana.
The tree
Both specres attain a height of 30m and a diameter of 0.75m or
slrghtly more.
The timber
The sapwood IS narrow in the better grades, sometrmes up to
50mm wide, lighter in colour than the heartwood whrch is
yellowrsh-brown to reddish-brown. Both species are typical of
the hard-pine class, being resrnous, with the growth-rings
usually well-marked by the contrast between the light-coloured
early-wood, and the dense, darker-coloured late-wood, which
produces a rather coarse texture rn the wood, especrally in
farrly rapidly grown matenal with Its wide growth-rings. The
timbers weigh about 670 kg/m3 on average when dried.
The lower density maternal of P. palustris and P. elliottii together
wrth other species termed southern yellow pine, IS lighter in
werght, coarser In texture, Inferior in strength, and usually has
a wider sapwood, sometimes as wide as 150mm.
Drying
All these species dry well with little degrade.
Strength
The general strength properties of P. palustris and P. elliottii
compare closely with those of ‘Douglas fir’.
Durability
Moderately durable.
58
Working qualities
Works moderately easily, but the resin IS often troublesome,
tending to clog saw-teeth and cutters, and to adhere to machrne
tables. Saws with teeth of fairly long pitch reduce the effect
of resin. A good finish is obtainable, and the wood can be glued
satlsfactorlly, takes nails and screws well, and gives fair results
with paint and other finishing treatments.
Uses
Heavy construction, exterior finish, flooring, ship-building for
spars, masts, decking, dock work. The lower density grades are
used for jolnery, light construction, boxes and crates.
PONDEROSA PINE
Pinus ponderosa Laws.
Other names
Western yellow pine, Californian white pine (USA) ; British
Columbia soft pine (Canada).
Distribution
In Canada, ponderosa pine is confined to the drier portions of
the southern Intenor of British Columbra and to the lower
altitudes of this district, sometimes in almost pure stands. In the
USA It extends from Montana through western Nebraska and
Texas into Mexico and westwards to the Pacific coast.
The tree
Generally attaining a height of 30m and a diameter of 0.75m
although occasionally it is much larger and taller.
The timber
The wood varies considerably in colour; mature trees have a
very thick, pale yellow sapwood, soft, non-resinous, uniform In
texture, and similar to yellow pine (P. strobus). The heartwood
IS much darker, ranging from a deep yellow to a reddish-brown,
and IS considerably heavier than the sapwood. Resin ducts are
fairly prominent on longitudrnal heartwood surfaces, appearing
as fine. dark brown Ilnes. The average weight of the wood is
about 480 kg/m3 when dried.
59
Drying
The wide sapwood is susceptrble to fungal staining and care
must be taken during air drying to ensure suitable piling. The
timber dries rapidly and well, and since the sapwood is partlcularly
valuable, anti-stain treatment is helpful.
Strength
Ponderosa pine grown in Canada has similar strength properties
to those of European redwood (P. sylvestris) .but that grown in
the USA is a little lighter in weight and some 15 per cent inferior
In average strength to the Canadian wood.
Durability
Non-durable.
Working qualities
The wood works easily and smoothly, and takes nails and
screws well, glues satisfactorily and can be painted, although
resin exudation may be troublesome. It is the most resinous of
the Canadian commercial pines.
Uses
The sapwood is used for pattern-making, kitchen furniture,
turner-y, and doors, the wood resembling yellow pine (P.
strobus) otherwrse the trmber is used for building, light and
medium construction, window frames, interior trim, boxes and
crates.
RED PINE, CANADIAN
Pinus resinosa Ait.
Other names
Norway pine (USA).
Distribution
In Canada It extends from Nova Scotia to Lake Winnipeg, and
southwards over the border to Minnesota and Wisconsin, and
eastwards to Massachusetts.
60
The tree
It reaches a height of 23m to 37m and a diameter of 0.5m to
0.75m.
The timber
The tree receives its name from the colour of its bark which is a
distinctive reddish-brown, the timber resembling European
redwood (P. sylvestris). The sapwood IS wide, often 75mm. of
a pale yellow colour, the heartwood being pale brown with a
reddlsh tinge to reddish-yellow, with a straight grain and
medium to fine texture. The wood is somewhat resinous, but not
enough to spoil the wood surface. There IS a good deal of
contrast In colour between the early-wood and late-wood in
the growth-rings. especially in the heartwood. producrng a
figure on longitudinal surfaces. The wood weighs about
450 kg/m3 when dried.
Drying
Dries easily and uniformly, with little checking, twisting or
cupping. Kiln-drying improves its finishing qualities by setting
the resin.
Strength
Although softer than European redwood, its general strength
properties are about equal to that species.
Durability
Non-durable.
Working qualities
Works easily with both hand and machine tools, and finishes
smoothly. It can be stained, painted, varnished or polished,
takes nails and screws satisfactorily and can be glued.
Uses
Its wide, permeable sapwood enables it to be readily treated with
preservatives. It is used for constructional work, tanks and
~110s. windows and doors, general joinery, piles, posts and
poles.
61
SUGAR PINE
Pinus lambertiana Dougl.
Other names
Californian sugar pine.
Distribution
Principally in Oregon and California, especially along the Sierra
Nevadas.
The tree
Attains a height of 24m to 45m and a diameter of 1 m or more.
The timber
A typical soft pine, the sapwood is white in colour, and the
heartwood vanes from pale straw colour to reddish-brown.
The change from early-wood to late-wood is gradual, and the
late-wood IS usually neither very extensive nor very dense. The
wood IS light in weight, about 430 kg/m3 when dried.
Drying
Dries easily and uniformly without undue degrade.
Strength
No information.
Durability
Non-durable.
Working qualities
The timber works very easily and has little duliing effect on
cutting edges. It is capable of a good smooth finish, but because
of Its soft nature is inclined to crumble under dull cutting edges;
these should be kept sharpened to obtain the best results. It
can be glued, stained, polished and painted satisfactorily, and
it holds screws and nails well.
Uses
Jolnery, doors, window frames, light construction, interior
trim, boxes.
62
WESTERN WHITE PINE
Pinus monticola Dougl. ex Lamb.
Other names
Idaho white pine
Distribution
In Canada It is found mainly in southern British Columbia, but it
also occurs in parts of the interior of British Columbia, and on
Vancouver Island. Its range extends south into California, and
east into Montana, and IS most abundant in northern Idaho.
The tree
A tall tree with a clean bole almost without taper, it is usually
from 23m to 37m high with a diameter of 1 m but occasional
specimens are much larger.
The timber
The sapwood is white in coiour and up to 75mm wide, and the
heartwood is a pale straw colour varying to shades of reddlshbrown,
with fine brown lines appearing on longitudinal surfaces
due to resin ducts, similar to those in yellow pine (Pinus
strobus). There is little contrast in colour between the earlywood
and late-wood zones. The grain IS straight, the texture
even and uniform, and the wood weighs about 450 kg/m3
when dried. Although western white pine bears some semilarity
to yellow pine, and both trmbers are used for similar
purposes, western white pine is slightly the heavier wood, and
has narrower growth-rrngs as a rule. It should be noted that
yellow pine (P. strobus) is invariably called white pine both in
the USA and Canada.
Drying
Dries easily and well, with little checking or warping, but with a
sltghtly higher shrinkage value than yellow pine.
Strength
Since its uses are similar, its strength must be compared to that
of yellow pine, and in this respect, white pine is some 30 per
cent harder, 25 per cent stronger in compression along the
grain, 15 per cent stronger in bending and 25 per cent more
63
resistant to shock loads: both species have about the same
resistance to splitting.
Durability
Non-durable.
Working qualities
Very easy to work, and provided cutting edges are sharp,
finishes excellently. Takes nails, screws, stains and paint well,
and glues satisfactorily.
Uses
Western white pine is used for joinery such as doors and windows,
interior trim, frtments, shelving, woodenware, light and
medrum construction, pattern-making, drawing-boards, cabinets,
match splints, and in boat and ship-burlding. It is also used
for plywood.
YELLOW PINE
Pinus strobus L.
Other names
white pine, eastern white pine (Canada and USA) ; northern
pine, northern white prne (USA) ; Quebec yellow pine, Weymouth
pine (UK).
Distribution
In Canada it is found in Newfoundland and in eastern Canada
from the Maritime Provinces to eastern Manitoba, but the
commercial forests lie mainly in the area of the St Lawrence
River. It reaches its best development in the Ottawa Valley in
Ontano and Quebec. In the USA it is found south of the Great
Lakes and along the Appalachian Mountains down to northern
Georgia.
The tree
Usually not more than 30m high and a diameter of 0.75m or
a little more, but under favourable conditions can reach a herght
of 52m to 60m with a diameter of 1.5m.
64
The timber
The sapwood is almost white, and the heartwood varies from
creamy-white to light straw-brown, or light reddish-brown.
The wood IS not particularly resinous, but restn ducts produce
short, brown-coloured, thin lines on longltudrnal surfaces. The
grain IS straight. and the texture is fine and even, planed svrfaces
have a satin-like appearance; the growth-rings are
rather inconscpicuous. The wood weighs about 420 kg/m3
when dried.
Drying
It dries readily and well, but suitable precautions should be
taken to avoid sap-statn.
Strength
A soft, weak timber, which compared to Europe?!, redwood is
45 per cent softer, 25 per cent less resistant to she,, S loads, 30
per cent weaker in bending and in compression alo,lr ihe grain,
and 20 per cent less resistant to splitting, and less stiff.
Durability
Non-durable.
Working qualities
Works very easily, but the soft nature of the timber encourages
crumbling under dull cutting edges, which must therefore be
kept sharpened in order to obtain the best results. It takes glue,
stains, polish, varnish and paint well, and can be screwed or
nailed.
Uses
An Important characteristic of yellow pine is its low shrinkage,
and In this respect It is superior to all other North American
softwoods except the cedars. It is therefore particularly wellsuited
to pattern-making, drawing-boards, doors, and other
forms of high-class work. It is also used for musical Instruments,
cabinets, ship and boat-building, shelving, light and
medium construction, interior trim, wooden-ware, match
splints and wood flour. It should be noted that second-growth
timber IS usually of coarser texture, and is prone to be knotty
and cross-grained.
65
SEQUOIA
The Taxodiaceae family produces the genus Sequoia. with two
wellLknown species indigenous to the USA. The best known IS
probably Sequoia glgantea Decne. the Brg Tree of Calrfornia,
whose drmenslons and age are equalled by no other lrvrng
organism. Its wood IS of little commercial value, and accordingly
these grants of the forest have been spared destruction.
Its only rival IS Sequoia sempervirens Endl. the Callfornran
redwood, or to grve It its standard name, sequoia, a tree whrch
has been extensively explorted In recent years, and only the
efforts of conservatronists have resulted in a few stands being
set aslde with a view to protection for all time. The followrng IS
a descnptron of sequoia (Sequoia sempervirens Endl.).
Distribution
It IS found in southern Oregon extending southwards near the
coast to Monterey, California.
The tree
The tree IS often heavrly buttressed and reaches a height of 60m
to IOOmm and a diameter of 3m to 4.5m or more. A characterrstlc
feature IS the cinnamon-brown coloured bark which IS
often 300mm thtck.
The timber
The sapwood IS very narrow, almost white in colour, and the
heartwood is a rich dull red or reddish-brown, with a growthring
figure produced by the contrastrng early-wood and latewood
zones. The wood somewhat resembles ‘western red
cedar’, but IS a little heavier and brighter in colour. The grain IS
straight, and the texture vanes from fine and even to rather
coarse. The wood IS non-resrnous, non-tainting and weighs
about 420 kg/m3.
Drying
No Information available, but It is said to be without strong
warping tendencies, and to hold Its shape well.
Strength
The timber IS lighter In weight, and slightly weaker in all strength
propertres by comparrson with European redwood.
66
Durability
Durable.
Working qualities
Works easily. but due to its splintering tendencies, and soft
character, care is needed in drilling, mortising and routing
operations, and in planing and moulding. Sharp cutting edges
are essential and waste removal must be efficient In order to
reduce chip-bruising.
Uses
Its durabll:ty makes It Ideal for wooden pipes, flumes, tanks,
vats, shingles and exterior cladding for buildings. It IS also used
for coffins, posts and for Intenor trim. It has been used for plywood,
and Its thick bark is utliized for fibre board and filtering
equipment.
SPRUCE
7 he Plnaceae family includes a number of species of the genus
Prea. These produce spruce, whose timber features a creamywhite
to \/ellowlsh-brown colour, relarively tnconsptcuous and
small resin ducts. and not vary conspicuous late-wood. The
following are the principal species found in North America.
EASTERN CANADIAN SPRUCE
Picea spp. principally P. glauca Voss.
Other names
white spruce (Canada and USA); Quebec, St. John, New
Brunswick. Nova Scotia, and mantime spruce (UK).
Distrubution
One of the most widely distributed trees, it occurs from Alaska to
Newfoundland, and southwards to northern British Columbra.
Its southern extremltles are Minnesota, Wisconsin and Michigan,
eastwards to New York State.
The tree
P. glauca attains a height of 15m to 24m and a diameter of
0.5m on average although on favourable sites it may be 30m
tall with a diameter of l.2m.
67
The timber
There is no difference by colour between sapwood and heartwood,
the wood being almost white to pale yellowish brown,
closely resembling European whitewood. It is straight-grained
and lustrous, without taste or odour, and only slightly resinous.
The wood weighs about 416 kg/m3 when dried, but since a
proportion of other species may be included in shipments, this
weight is conservative and the average weight could be a little
higher. See concluding notes.
Drying
Dries fairly easily, without undue degrade.
Strength
For structural purposes, the general strength propertles are
similar to those of European redwood of similar grade.
Durability
Non-durable
Working qualities
Works very easily, but knots can sometlmes be troublesome.
With sharp cutting edges the wood can be finlshed cleanly. It
can be stained, polished or painted, takes nails and screws
well, and can be glued satisfactorily.
Uses
Light and medium construction, paddles and oars, ladder stock
and scaffold boards, butter boxes, kitchen cabinets, and from
selected stock, for piano sounding boards. It is also used extensively
for the production of pulp for paper and rayon and
cellophane.
The timber is generally marketed as Canadian spruce, and while
the bulk of shipments contain mostly timber of Picea glauca,
they may contain some red spruce, P. rubens Sarg. and black
spruce, P. marlana B.S.P., and since balsam fir grows with black
spruce, thus species may also be included. A description of
balsam frr IS included elsewhere in this booklet, but the following
notes summarize the characteristics of black and red
spruce.
68
BLACK SPRUCE
Picea mariana B.S.P.
General characteristics
A slow-growing tree also known as swamp or water spruce,
comparatively small, sometimes no more than 12m high, but
usually 15m to 18m high with a diameter of 0.3m. SImIlarto eastern
Canadian spruce in appearance, but a little heavier, about
480 kg/m3 when dried, and rather harder and stronger. On
account of its size it IS not so important a timber species as
P. glauca, but is a valuable pulpwood, and is also used for
mining props.
RED SPRUCE
Picea rubens Sarg.
General characteristics
Sometimes called yellow spruce, it grows to a height of 18m to
24m with a diameter of about 0.5m. Similar to eastern Canadian
spruce in appearance, but with rather more prominent latewood
bands, giving a rather more prominent figure. Weighs
about 448 kg/m3 when dried. It is also a valuable pulpwood.
ENGELMANN SPRUCE
Picea engelmannii Engelm.
Other names
mountarn spruce, Rocky Mountain spruce.
Distribution
It occurs throughout the interior mountain region of British
Columbia and on the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains. It
also extends into the USA to the Sacramento Mountains and
eastwards to the eastern slopes of the Cascade Mountains in
Oregon and Washington.
The tree
It is usually from 24m to 36m in height with a diameter of
0.75m but may be larger on favourable sites.
69
The timber
The timber is similar to eastern Canadian spruce, being light
in colour, and with a straight grain, but due to the size of the
tree, a higher proportion of clear timber is usually produced. It
werghs about 450 kg/m3 when dried.
Drying
Dnes easily and well.
Strength
Although varying in mechanical properties according to growth
conditions, on average it compares favourably with Sltka spruce,
although a little softer and therefore rather less resistant to
impact.
Durability
Non-durable.
Working qualities
Works easrly and well, but cutting edges must be kept sharpened
in order to obtain a really smooth finish. It can be narled, screwed
and glued satisfactorily, and takes the usual finishing treatments
without difficulty.
Uses
Intenor joinery, carpentry, building, plywood, piano sounding
boards, oars and paddles.
SITKA SPRUCE
Picea sitchensis Carr.
Other names
silver spruce, tideland spruce, Menzies spruce
Distribution
It occurs throughout the coastal belt of British Columbia,
but attarns its best development on the Queen Charlotte
Islands. It occurs over the border through Washington and into
Caltfornia, generally in the coastal strip.
70
The tree
It attains a height of up to 60m with a diameter of Im to 2m
above the enlarged or buttressed base.
The timber
There is little difference in colour between sapwood and heartwood,
the wood generally being a creamy white, but the heartwood
usually has a pinkish tinge. It usually has a very straight
grain, but occasionally this may be spiral, whtle the texture is
medium but dependent on the rate of growth, although on
average this is usually fairly slow and even. The wood is nonresinous,
without odour and therefore non-tainting, light in
weight, about 450 kg/m3 when dried, and showing a silvery
lustre on planed surfaces.
Drying
Dries rapidly and quite well, but care is needed if warping,
splitting and loosening of knots is to be kept to a reasonable
level.
Strength
Its strength to weight ratio is high, and compared with European
redwood (Pinus sylvesfris). it is some 25 per cent stiffer, and IS
about equal in bending strength, hardness and resistance to
splitting.
Durability
Non-durable.
Working qualities
It is easily worked, and provided cutting edges are kept sharpened,
finishes very cleanly. It can be nailed, screwed, glued,
stained, polished and painted satisfactorily.
Uses
Gilders, sail-planes, oars and racing sculls, interior joinery,
building and for boxes.
71
WESTERN WHITE SPRUCE
Picea glauca Voss. var. glauce albertiana Sarg.
Distribution
It occurs from Manitoba westwards towards the Pacific coast
and northwards Into Alaska, and spreads south to the Rocky
Mountains and USA.
General characteristics
The wood is similar to eastern Canadian spruce, but the texture
is more even and finer, and due to the size of the tree and the
growth conditions, there are often fewer defects. The wood
weighs about 430 kg/ma when dried.
It works well and is used for joinery. building construction,
scaffold planks and plywood.
72
USE GUIDE FOR NORTH AMERICAN TIMBERS
AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS AND EQUIPMENT
basswood (beehives) elm, whrte
‘cedar, western red’ (beehives, hornbeam, hop
greenhouses etc.) larch, tamarack
‘cedar yellow’ larch, western
coffee tree, Kentucky maple
cypress oak, love
elm, rock oak, white
elm, slippery
BOAT AND SHIP CONSTRUCTION
Decking larch, western
‘fir, Douglas’ pine, pitch
larch, tamarack all edge-grain.
For canvas/plastic covered decks
‘cedar, Port ‘Orford’
‘cedar, western red’
pine, lodgepole
Framing
ash, tough white
elm, rock
Keels and stems
oak, live
Masts and spars
‘fir, Douglas’ (when selected)
Oars and paddles
‘cedar, Port Orford’
Planking
‘cedar, yellow’
elm, rock
‘fir, Douglas’
pine, sugar
pine, western white.
oak, live
oak, white
oak, white
pine, patch
pine, pitch (when selected)
spruce, Sitka (when selected)
spruce, Canadian (when
selected)
spruce, Srtka
larch, tamarack
larch, western
pine, various, (when
selected)
73
Boat and ship construction (cont.)
Superstructures, cabins, fitments
butternut
‘cedar, pencil’ sassafras
cherry walnut
plane whitewood
BOXES, CRATES AND CONTAINERS
basswood
birch, paper
buckeye
butternut
elm
fir, alpine
fir, amabllis
fir, grand
fir, noble
gum, red
Heavy/Medium
‘cedar, pencil’
cypress
elm, rock
‘fir, Douglas’
Light
‘cedar, incense’
‘cedar, Port Or-ford’
‘cedar, western red’
‘cedar, yellow’
fir, alplne
fir. amabllls
fir, balsam
fir, grand
fir, noble
hackberry
hemlock, eastern
hemlock, western
hackberry
hemlock, eastern
larch, tamarack
pine, lodgepole
pine, Ponderosa
pine, sugar
sassafras
spruce
willow, black
CONSTRUCTION
larch, western
oak, red
oak, white
pine, jack
pine, pitch
magnolia
pine, lodgepole
pine, pitch (low density)
pine, Ponderosa
pine, red
pine, sugar
pine, western white
pine, yellow
plane
spruce
tupelo
whitewood
74
COOPERAGE
basswood (heads)
buckeye (heads)
beech (slack)
birch. yellow (slack)
cypress (trght)
elm, slippery, (slack)
elm, whrte (slack)
‘fir, Douglas’ (slack and
tight)
hackberry (slack)
oak, red (slack)
oak, white (tight)
sassafras (slack)
DOORS
fir, grand
birch, yellow
fir, noble
‘cedar, pencil’
hemlock, western
(edge-grain)
magnolia
‘cedar, yellow’
maple
oak, white
‘fir, Douglas’ (edge-grain)
pine, red
pine, pitch
pine, sugar
pine. western white
pine, Ponderosa
pine, yellow
plane
whitewood
(sapwood ; treated for ext.
use)
apple
butternut (stained)
cherry
holly
beech
birch. yellow
FANCY GOODS
maple
osage orange
plane
walnut
FLOORING
oak, red
oak, white
‘fir, Douglas’ (edge-grain)
hemlock, western
larch, western
maple
prne, patch (edge-grain)
pines, various
tupelo
75
FURNITURE AND CABINET-MAKING
beech
birch, yellow
buckeye (intenors)
‘cedar, pencrl’
‘cedar, Port Orford’
‘cedar, yellow’
cherry
chestnut
elm, rock (chair rockers)
elm, slippery
elm. whrte
hackberry
hrckory/pecan (chairs)
maple
oak, red
oak, white
pine, Ponderosa (sapwood)
pine, western white
pine, yellow
poplar/cottonwood
(interiors)
sassafras
High-class
ash, soft white
basswood
beech
birch, yellow
butternut
‘cedar, pencil’
‘cedar, yellow’
cherry
chestnut
cypress
elm, slippery
elm, white
Utility
ash, black
ash, soft white
basswood
beech
buckeye
butternut
‘cedar. Incense’
‘cedar, Port Orford’
‘cedar, western red’
coffee tree
frr. alpine
fir, amabrlrs
JOINERY
‘fir, Douglas’
hackberry
hemlock, western
magnolra
maple
oak, red
oak, white
pine, pitch
pine, Ponderosa (sapwood)
pine, sugar
pine, western white
pine, yellow
plane
fir, balsam
fir. grand
fir, noble
gum, red
hemlock, eastern
larch, western
prne, Ponderosa
pine, red
pine, sugar
poplar/cottonwood
spruce
tupelo
whitewood
76
MARINE PILING AND CONSTRUCTION
Under water
(a) Teredo infested waters
‘fir, Douglas’ pine, lodgepole
pine, jack pine, red
all pressure treated with preservative
(b) Non-teredo waters in addition to above
‘cedar, incense’ ‘cedar, yellow’
‘cedar, Port Orford’ larch, western
‘cedar, pencil’ pine, pitch
‘cedar, western red’
Above water
(a) docks, wharves, bridges, etc.
coffee tree hemlock, western
elm, rock pine, jack
elm, slippery pine, pitch
elm, white pine, red
‘frr, Douglas’
(b) Decking
‘fir, Douglas’ (edge-grain)
hemlock, eastern (rough bridge planks)
hemlock, western (temporary work)
oak, white
pitch pine, (edge-grain)
STAIR TREADS
maple, hard oak, white (quarter-sawn)
Striking
ash, tough white
Non-striking
ash, green
TOOL HANDLES
hickory/pecan
beech
hornbeam, hop
77
TURNERY
alder, red
apple
basswood
beech
brrch, paper
birch, yellow
cherry
cypress
‘fir, Douglas’
larch, tamarack
larch, western
dogwood
hickory/pecan
maple
oak
persimmon
pine, Ponderosa (sapwood)
walnut
VATS, TANKS, SILOS, ETC.
pine, jack (silos)
pine, red (silos)
sequoia
VEHICLE BODIES
ash. tough white hickory/pecan
beech hornbeam, hop
cypress oak, live
elm, rock (bent work) oak, red
hackberry oak, white
hemlock, western poplar/cottonwood
VENEER AND PLYWOOD
Corestock basswood
alder poplar/cottonwood
Decorative ‘cedar, yellow’
alder (selected with natural maple
defects) oak, white
‘cedar, pencil’ (selected with plane
natural defects) walnut
Utility (plywood, chip baskets, small laminated articles, etc.)
alder larch, western
basswood maple
brrch, paper oak, red
birch, yellow pine. western white
‘fir, Douglas’ poplar/cottonwood
fir. noble (selected) sequoia
gum, red whitewood
hemlock, western
78
AMENABILITY OF HEARTWOOD TO
PRESERVATIVE TREATMENT
Extremely resistant
aspen
cedar, pencil
Resistant
‘cedar, incense’
‘cedar, northern white’
‘cedar, southern white’
‘cedar, western red’
‘cedar, yellow’
cottonwood, eastern
cypress
elm, rock
‘fir, Douglas’
fir, alpine
fir, amabllis
fir, balsam
fir, grand
fir, noble
Moderately resistant
ash
birch, paper
birch, yellow
‘cedar. Port Orford’
cottonwood, black
elm. slippery
elm, white
hackberry
hickory/pecan
Permeable
alder, red
basswood
chestnut
oak
poplar, Canadian
hemlock, eastern
hemlock, western
larch, tamarack
larch, western
maple
pine, lodgepole
pine, pitch
spruce, east Canadian
spruce, black
spruce, red
spruce, Engelmann
spruce, Sitka
spruce, western white
walnut
willow, black
hornbeam, hop
magnolia
pine, jack
pine, ponderosa
pine, red
pine, sugar
pine, western white
pine, yellow
seuuoia
beech
buckeye
79
The above classification refers to the ease with whrch a timber
absorbs preservatives under both open-tank (non-pressure) and
pressure treatments. Sapwood. although nearly always perishable,
IS usually much more permeable than heartwood, accordingly,
the above classrficatron refers to the relative resistance
of heartwood to penetration.
Extremely resistant
Timbers that absorb only a small amount of preservative even
under long pressure treatments. They cannot be penetrated to
an appreciable depth laterally, and only to a very small extent
longrtudinally.
Resistant
Trmbers difficult to impregnate under pressure and require a
long period of treatment. It is often difficult to penetrate them
laterally more than about 3mm to 6mm.
Incising is often used to obtain better treatment.
Moderately resistant
Timbers that are fairly easy to treat, and it is usually possible
to obtain a lateral penetration of the order of 6mm to 18mm in
about 2-3 hours under pressure, or a penetration of a large
proportron of the vessels.
Permeable
Timbers that can be penetrated completely under pressure
without difficulty, and can usually be heavily impregnated by the
open-tank process.
80
TERMITE RESISTANCE
Termites are by no means restricted to tropical countries; they
are serious pests in temperate regions also. Termites have always
been present In the USA but are marnly absent from Canada.
Termites of two drstrnct types occur in the USA ie those subterranean
in habit and the non-subterranean or dry-wood
termrtes. Subterranean termites are widely distributed throughout
the IJSA and damage burldings rn nearly every State. They
can senously and structurally weaken burldings in a short
period of time.
Non-subterranean termites never burrow in the earth but fly to
and attack wood directly. These dry-wood termites are not
widely distributed, and therr damage to buildings occurs only
In that area of country south of a half-moon line drawn from
Norfolk, Vrrgrnra to San Francisco in California.
Most serious damage to burldrngs due to termite attack occurs
throughout the eastern USA, the Gulf States, the south-west,
the central west and the Pacific Coast.
Since few timber species throughout the world are more than
hrghly reststant to termrte attack, and most of these would need
to be Imported, the USA generally regards protection of timber
to he more practrcal where native commercial timbers are
Impregnated with standard chemical wood preservatives,
coupled with Building Codes which provrdc for termite
protectron within the burldrng design.
In tests carried out in the USA Calrfornran redwood, ‘incense
cedar’, yellow cypress, ‘western red cedar’ and a few Junlperus
spp. have indicated their heartwood to be fairly resistant to
attack, as was also the case wrth pitch pine stakes taken from
the butts of logs which contained a high proportion of resin,
locally called fatwood.
Amencan building regulations and codes contain mandatory
sections on termite protection of both foundation timbers and
rntenor and exterior woodwork, and incorporate preservative
treatments recommended by the American Wood-Preservers’
Assocratron.
81
REFERENCES
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. Nomenclature of commercial
timbers, including sources of supply. British Standard
BS 881 and 589. London, BSI. 1974.
BUILDING RESEARCH ESTABLISHMENT. H.andbook of
hardwoods, revised by R. H. Farmer. London, HMSO. 1972.
BUILDING RESEARCH ESTABLISHMENT. A handbook of
softwoods. BRE Report. London, HMSO 2nd ed. 1977.
HAIR, D. and SPADA, B. Hardwood timber resources of the
United States. Paper presented to Conference on Tropical
Hardwoods, Syracuse University, August 1969. New York,
Syracuse Universtty. 1969.
KLOOT, N. H. and BOLZA, E. Properties of timbers imported
into Australia. Australia Division of Forest Products, Technological
Paper No. 12. Melbourne, CSIRO. 1961.
McELHANNEY and associates. Canadian woods : Their
properties and uses. Ottawa, Forest Products Laboratories of
Canada. 1935.
The TRADA senes of red booklets-‘Timbers of the World’
1 Timbers of Africa
2 Timbers of South America
3 Timbers of Southern Asia
4 Timbers of South East Asia
5 Timbers of Philippines and Japan
6 Timbers of Europe
7 Timbers of North America
8 Timbers of Australasia
9 Timbers of Central America and Caribbean
82
A
Abies amabilis 45
Abies balsamea 46
Abies grandis 47
Abies lasiocarpa 44
Abies nobills 48
Abies procera 48
Acer macroph y/turn 18
Acer negundo 19
Acer nigrum 18
Acer pseudoplatanus 24
Acer rubrum 18
Acer saccharinum 18
Acer saccharum 18
Aesculus flava 30
Aesculus octandra 30
Alaska yellow cedar 38
alder, Oregon 1
ALDER, RED 1
alder, western 1
Alnus rubra 1
ALPINE FIR 44
AMABILIS FIR 45
AMERICAN ASH 1
AMERICAN BEECH 4
American birch 6, 7
AMERICAN CHERRY 8
B
‘bald cypress’ 40
balm poplar 25
balsam 46
balsam cottonwood 25
BALSAM FIR 46
balsam poplar 25
BASSWOOD 3
B.C. hemlock 51
AMERICAN CHESTNUT 9
AMERICAN ELM 11
AMERICAN HOLLY 30
AMERICAN HOP
HORNBEAM 16
Amerrcan lime 3
AMERICAN PITCH
PINE 57
AMERICAN PLANE 23
AMERICAN RED GUM 13
AMERICAN WALNUT 27
AMERICAN
WH ITEWOOD 28
APPLE WOOD 30
arbor vitae, eastern 34
arbor vitae, giant 37
ASH, AMERICAN 1
ASH, BLACK 2
ash, brown 2
ash, Canadian 3
ASH, GREEN 2
ash, red 2
ASH, WHITE 3
ash-leaved maple 20
aspen, big-tooth 25
ASPEN, CANADIAN 24
aspen, quaking 24
‘Atlantic white cedar’ 34
B.C. soft pine 59
‘B.C. pine’ 41
BEECH, AMERICAN 4
Betula alleghaniensis 7
Betula lenta 7
Betula lutea 7
Betula papyrifera 6. 7
Betula pap ynfera var
occiden talis 6
betula wood 7
83
big-tooth aspen 25
big tree 66
bllsted 13
BIRCH 5
birch, American 6, 7
birch. Canadian, yellow 7
birch, hard 7
BIRCH, PAPER 6
brrch, Quebec 7 *
birch, red 7
birch, western paper 6
birch, white 6, 7
BIRCH, YELLOW 7
bitter pecan 15
BLACK ASH 2
C
cabinet cherry 8
Canadian ash 3
CANADIAN ASPEN 24
CANADIAN POPLAR 25
CANADIAN RED PINE 60
Canadian spruce 67
‘Californian Incense
cedar’ 31
Callfornran redwood 66
Californian sugar pine 62
Calrfornran white pine 59
Calocedrus decurrens 3 1
canary wood 28
canary whitewood 28
Carya aquatica 15
Carya glabra 14
Carya Illinoensis 1 5
Carya laclniosa 14
Carya ovata 15
Carya tomentosa 14
Castanea dentata 9
CATALPA 30
Catalpa speciosa 30
black cherry 8
BLACK COTTONWOOD 25
black cypress 40
black gum 26
black maple 18
black poplar 25
BLACK SPRUCE 69
black tupelo 26
black walnut 27
BLACK WILLOW 31
box elder 20
brown ash 2
BUCKEYE 30
butternut 28
buttonwood 23
CEDAR 31
‘cedar, Atlantic white’ 34
‘CEDAR, INCENSE’ 31
‘cedar, eastern red’ 35
‘CEDAR, NORTHERN
WHITE’ 34
‘CEDAR, PORT
ORFORD’ 33
‘CEDAR, RED’ 37
‘CEDAR, SOUTHERN
WHITE’ 34
‘CEDAR, VIRGINIAN
PENCIL’ 35
‘CEDAR, WESTERN
RED’ 37
‘CEDAR, WHITE,
SOUTHERN’ 34
‘CEDAR, YELLOW’ 38
Celtis occiden talis 14
Chamaec yparis
la wsoniana 3 3
Chamaec yparis
nootkatensis 38
Chamaec yparis th yoides 34
84
cherrybark oak 20
CHERRY, AMERICAN 8
cherry. black 8
cherry, cabinet 8
CHESTNUT, AMERICAN 9
chestnut oak 20
COFFEE TREE,
KENTUCKY 30
‘Columbian pine’ 41
contorta pine 56
cornel 10
cork-bark elm 11
cork elm 11
Cornus florida 10
D
Diosp yros virginiana 2 3
E
eastern arbor vitae 34
EASTERN CANADIAN
SPRUCE 67
EASTERN HEMLOCK 49
eastern larch 52
‘eastern red cedar’ 35
‘eastern white cedar’ 34
eastern white pine 64
ELM, AMERICAN 11
elm, cork 11
F
Fagus grandifolia 4
FIR, ALPINE 44
FIR, AMABI LIS 45
FIR, BALSAM 46
‘FIR, DOUGLAS’ 41
FIR, GRAND 47
fir, lowland 47
fir, mountain 44
cottonwood, balsam 25
COTTONWOOD, BLACK 25
COTTONWOOD,
EASTERN 25
cucumber 17
Cupressus la wsoniana 3 3
Cupressus nootkatensis 38
Cupressus th yoides 34
‘cypress, bald’ 40
cypress, Lawson’s 33
‘cypress, Louisiana’ 40
‘CYPRESS, SOUTHERN’ 40
‘cypress, swamp’ 40
cypress, yellow 39
DOGWOOD 10
‘DOUGLAS FIR’ 41
elm, cork bark 11
elm, hickory 11
elm, red 11
elm, rock 11
elm, slippery 11
elm, slippery-barked 11
elm, soft 11
elm, swamp 11
elm, water 11
elm, white 11
ENGELMANN SPRUCE 69
FIR, NOBLE 48
fir, Pacific silver 45
fir, Rocky Mountain 44
FIR, TRUE 43
fir, western balsam 44, 47
fir, white 44, 45, 47
Fraxinus americana 3
Fraxinus nigra 2
Fraxinus pennsylvanica 2
85
G
giant arbor vitae 37
GRAND FIR 47
GREEN ASH 2
Gulf coast pitch pine 57
H
HACKBERRY 14
hard birch 7
hard maple 18
hard pine 55, 58
hazel pine 13
HEMLOCK 49
HEMLOCK, EASTERN 49
hemlock, Pacific 51
HEMLOCK, WESTERN 51
‘hemlock spruce’ 49
hemlock, white 49
I
Idaho white pine 63
J
JACK PINE 55
Juglans cinerea 28
K
KENTUCKY COFFEE
TREE 30
L
lacewood 24
LARCH 52
larch, eastern 52
LARCH, TAMARACK 52
LARCH, WESTERN 53
GUM, AMERICAN
RED 13
gum, sap 13
gum, sweet 13
G ymnocladus canadensis 30
G ymnocladus dioica 30
Hickoria spp. 14
HICKORY 14
hickory, mockernut 14
hickory, pecan 15
hickory, pignut 14
hickory, red 15
hickory, shagbark 15
hickory, shellbark 14
hickory, water 15
hickory, white 15
HOLLY, AMERICAN 30
HOP HORNBEAM,
AMERICAN 16
llex opaca 30
‘INCENSE CEDAR’ 31
ironwood 16
Juglans nigra 27
Juniperus silicicola 3 5
Juniperus virginiana 35
Larix laricina 52
Larix occiden talis 5 3
Lawson’s cypress 33
Libocedrus decurrens 3 1
lime, American 3
Liquidambar
styraciflua 13
86
Liriodendron
tuliplfera 24. 28
live oak 23
loblolly pine 57
LODGEPOLE PINE 56
M
Maclura pomifera 30
MAGNOLIA 17
Magnolia grandiflora 17
Magnolia virginiana 17
Malus spp. 30
Manitoba maple 20
TLSAPLE 18
mrple, ash leaved 20
maple, black 18
maple, hard 18
maple, Manitoba 20
N
New Brunswick spruce 67
NOBLE FIR 48
nootka false cypress 38
northern red oak 21
NORTHERN WHITE
CEDAR 34
0
OAK 20
oak, cherrybark 20
oak, chestnut 20
oak, evergreen 23
oak, live 23
oak, northern red 20, 21
oak, northern white 21
oak, overcup 20
OAK, RED 20
oak, shumard red 20
longleaf 57
long leaf pitch pine 57
long leaf yellow pine
‘Louisiana cypress’ 405’
lowland fir 47
maple, Oregon 18
maple, Pacific 18
maple, red 18
maple, rock 18
maple, silver 18
maple, soft 18
maple, sugar 18
mantime spruce 67
Menzies spruce 70
mockernut hickory 14
mountain fir 44
mountain spruce 69
northern white oak 21, 22
Nova Scotia spruce 67
Norway pine 60
Nyssa aquatica 26
Nyssa ogeche 26
Nyssa sylvatica 26
oak, southern red 20, 21
oak, southern white 22
oak, Spanish 20
oak, swamp chestnut 20
oak, swamp red 20
OAK, WHITE 20, 21
Oregon alder 1
Oregon maple 18
‘Oregon pine’ 41
OSAGE ORANGE 30
Ostrya virginiana 16
87
P
Pacific hemlock 51
Pacific maple 18
Pacific silver fir 45
PAPER BIRCH 6
pecan 15
pecan, bitter 15
pecan, hickory 15
pecan, sweet 15
‘PENCIL CEDAR,
VIRGINIAN’ 35
PERSIMMON 23
Picea engelmannii 69
Picea glauca 67
Ptcea gtauca var.
albertiana 7 2
Picea mariana 69
Picea rubens 69
Picea sitchensis 70
pignut hickory 14
PINE 55
pine. B.C. 41
pine. B.C. soft 59
prne, Californian sugar 62
pine, contorta 56
pine, hazel 13
pina, Idaho white 63
PINE, JACK 55
pine, loblolly 57
PINE, LODGEPOLE 56
pine, long leaf yellow 57
pine, northern 64
pine, Norway 60
pine, Oregon 41
PINE, PITCH,
AMERICAN 57
pine, Gulf Coast 57
pine. pitch, long leaf 57
PINE, PONDEROSA 59
pine, princess 55
pine. Quebec yellow
PINE, RED,
CANADIAN 60
pine, short leaf 57, 58
pine, slash 57
pine, southern 57
pine, southern yellow 57
PINE, SUGAR 62
pine, Western yellow 59
pine, white 63, 64
pine, white, Californian 59
pine, western white 63
pine, Weymouth
pine, white, eastern 54
pine, white, Idaho 63
pine, white, northern 64
PINE, WHITE,
WESTERN 63
pine, Weymouth 64
PINE, YELLOW 64
pine, yellow, Quebec 64
pine, yellow, southern 57
pine, yellow, western 59
Pinus banksiana 55
Pinus contorta var.
la tifolia 5 6
Pinus contorta var.
murrayana 56
Pinus echinata 57
Pinus elliottii 57
Pinus lambertiana 62
Pinus monticola 63
Pinus palustris 57
Pinus ponderosa 59
Pinus resinosa 60
Pinus strobus 64
Pinus taeda 57
PLANE, AMERICAN 23
Pla tan us occiden talis 2 3
PONDEROSA PINE 59
POPLAR 24
poplar, balm 25
88
poplar, black 25
POPLAR, CANADIAN 25
poplar, tacamahac 25
poplar, tulip 28
poplar, yellow 28
Populus balsamifera 2 5
Populus deltoides 2 5
Populus grandiden tata 2 5
Populus tacamahaca 2 5
Q
Quebec birch 7
Quebec spruce 67
Quebec yellow pine 64
Quercus alba 20
Quercus borealis 20
Quercus falcata var.
falcata 20
R
RED ALDER 1
red ash 2
‘red cedar’ 37
‘red cedar, eastern’ 35
‘RED CEDAR,
WESTERN’ 37
RED GUM,
AMERICAN 13
S
Salix nigra 31
sap gum 13
SASSAFRAS 31
Sassafras officinale 3 1
Sassafras variifolium 3 1
satin walnut 13
SEQUOIA 66
Sequoia gigantea 66
Sequoia sempervirens 66
poplar, balsam 25
Populus tremuloides 24
Populus trichocarpa 2 5
‘PORT ORFORD
CEDAR’ 33
Prunus serotina 8
Pseudotsuga douglasii 41
Pseudotsuga menziesii 41
Pseudotsuga taxifolia 41
Quercus falca ta var.
pagodaefolia 20
Quercus lyrata 20
Quercus michauxii 20
Quercus montana 20
Quercus prinus 20
Quercus rubra 20
Quercus shumardii 20
Quercus virginiana 23
red hickory 15
RED OAK 20
RED PINE, CANADIAN 60
RED SPRUCE 69
redwood, Californian 66
ROCK ELM 11, 12
rock maple 18
Rocky Mountain fir 44
Rocky Mountain spruce 69
shagbark hickory 15
shellbark hickory 14
short leaf pine 57, 58
shumard red oak 20
silver maple 18
silver spruce 70
SITKA SPRUCE 70
slash pine 57, 58
SLIPPERY ELM 11
slrppery barked elm 11
soft elm 11
89
soft maple 18
soft pine 55, 59, 62
‘SOUTHERN CYPRESS’ 40
southern pine 57
southern red oak 20
‘SOUTHERN WHlTE
CEDAH’ 34
southern white oak 22
southern yellow pine 57
SPRUCE 67
SPRUCE, BLACK 68, 69
SPRUCE, EASTERN
CANADIAN 67
SPRUCE, ENGELMANN 69
spruce, maritime 67
spruce, Menzies 70
spruce, mountain 69
spruce, New Brunswick 67
spruce, Nova Scotia 67
spruce, Queoec 67
SPRUCE, RED 68, 69
T
tacamahac poplar 25
tamarack 52
TAMARACK LARCH 52
tamarack, western 53
Taxodlum disttchum 40
Thuja occiden talis 34
Thuja pllcata 37
tideland spruce 70
‘tidewater cypress’ 40
U
Ulmus americana 11
spruce, Rocky Mountain 69
spruce, silver 70
SPRUCE, SITKA 70
spruce, St John 67
spruce, swamp 69
spruce, tideland 70
spruce, water 69
spruce, white 67
SPRUCE, WESTERN
WHITE 72
spruce, yellow 69
sugar maple 18
SUGAR PINE 62
swamp elm 11
swamp chestnut oak 20
‘swamp cypress’ 40
swamp red oak 20
sweet buckeye 30
sweet gum 13
sweet pecan 15
svcamore 23
Tilia americana 3
Tilia glabra 3
TRUE FIR 43
Tsuaa canadensis 49
Tsuga heteroph ylla 5 1
TUPELO 26
tupelo, black 26
tupelo gum 26
tupelo, water 26
tulip poplar 28
tulip tree 28
Ulmus fulva 11
Ulmus racemosa 11
Ulmus thomasii 11
‘VIRGINIAN PENCIL
CEDAR’ 35
90
w
WALNUT, AMERICAN 27
walnut, black 27
walnut, satin 13
walnut, white 28
water hickory 15
water spruce 69
water tupelo 26
western alder 1
western balm 25
western balsam 46
western balsam fir 44, 47
WESTERN HEMLOCK 51
WESTERN LARCH 53
western paper btrch 6
‘WESTERN RED CEDAR’ 37
WESTERN WHITE
PINE 63
western tamarack 53
WESTERN WHITE
SPRUCE 72
western yellow pine 59
WHITE ASH 3
white brrch 6
‘white cedar’ 34
‘white cedar Atlantic’ 34
‘white cedar eastern’ 34
‘WHITE CEDAR
NORTHERN’ 34
‘WHITE CEDAR
SOUTHERN’ 34
‘white cypress’ 40
WHITE ELM 11
white fir 44, 45, 47
white hemlock 49
white hrckory 15
WHITE OAK 21
white pint, Californian 59
white pine 64
white pine. eastern 64
white pine, northern 64
WHITE PINE, WESTERN 63
white spruce 67
WHITEWOOD,
AMERICAN 28
whitewood, canary 28
willow, black 31
Weymouth pine 64
Y
YELLOW BIRCH 7
‘YELLOW CEDAR’ 38
‘yellow cedar, Pacific
Coast’ 39
yellow cypress 39
YELLOW PINE 64
yellow poplar 28
yellow spruce 69
91